From Aristocracy to Masses: The Evolution of Fashion in Europe

Introduction

Prior to the Second Industrial Revolution, the European continent was marked by social unrest and perennial conflict, with only the affluent aristocrats having access to luxurious attire. It was not until the advent of the Second Industrial Revolution that fashion became a major point of interest for the general populace, as opposed to something exclusive to the bourgeoisie class of the time. Extravagant attire was a privilege reserved for the aristocrats simply due to the fact that, prior to the Second Industrial Revolution, mass production was not feasible and this resulted in exorbitant prices that the working class could not afford- Man was effectively responsible for all labour, as machinery was utterly incapable of producing mass amounts of textiles (Sharon Takeda et. al, 47). The eighteenth century and nineteenth century witnessed rapid mechanization and technological developments, seen in weaving and spinning; a revolutionary innovation for mass-producing in a significantly shortened period of time (Takeda, 47). This rapid industrialization was integral in providing luxurious attire to a broader audience, while simultaneously having a profound impact on the development of technology in the fashion industry. However, this occurred to the dismay of many workers, as their labor was rendered ineffective and obsolete by the aforementioned automation. Yet, this automation was necessary for inter-continental business relations, as well as an undeniable increase in the standard of living for the European populations.

The garments in the post-industrial Revolution Era

Due to the aforementioned social unrest and conflicts throughout Europe prior to the Second Industrial Revolution, much of the fashion of the age was inherently exclusive to the aristocracy; a time of increasing prosperity and for the upper class to dress to their appeal (Doreen Yarwood, 91). As time passed, there was a greater variety of clothing for both sexes, therefore, attire was changed multiple times in a day for different events and thus the upper classes did not solely rely on “essential” wear (Yarwood, 91). Not only was the aristocracy able to dress in such luxurious garments and attire, but quality fabrics and dressmaking were becoming increasingly more available to the other classes, especially the working class. This subsequently led to a rapid increase in the strength of the economy (Yarwood, 91)- the concept of the complete costume being changed multiple times was no longer taboo for the middle class and business sectors (Yarwood, 91).

Multiple factors were responsible for the wider availability of luxurious garments in the post-industrial revolution era. These included but were not limited to: mechanical innovations, industrialization, the spread of great empires within Europe, and lastly, the establishment and development within marketing schemes (Yarwood, 91). With these factors implemented, it is important to note that there was a rapid development of the quality within the textile industry, as the production of textiles advanced, leading to a further mechanization of all traditional processes of garment making - preparation, spinning, weaving, and dyeing was all done by machine rather than by hand (Yarwood, 91). Export within the industry was gradually heightening, There was also a marked expansion in the production of raw materials during the previously mentioned time frame (Yarwood, 91). Merino sheep wool is a strong example, it was being harvested more frequently and was exported significantly more than it had in the past, there became a high demand for such fabric (Yarwood, 91). The high demand for certain materials helped each economy boom. Each country had its own respective material that would lead to economic prosperity and enrichment- some with their plethora of silk, others with their supply of Merino wool (Yarwood, 91).

The prefabricated clothing and fashion industry are one of the most essential industries in economic history, as Britain’s clothing trades were one of the most important sources of employment at the time (Andrew Godley, 3). As seen throughout 1851, dress trades were the second most notable sources for non-agricultural work for women, after domestic services (Godley, 3). The development of the textile printing industry in Europe had great economic advancements as demand for exotic clothing increased exponentially amongst the population (Takeda, 64). Men and women alike were purchasing clothes for luxury and good taste, instead of solely for the purpose of dressing for the weather or undesirable work conditions (Takeda, 64). Voracious demand for textiles had a profound impact on the economy as there became an increasing development for international and intra-European trade (Takeda, 64). One of the subsequent outcomes of the increasingly productive economy is that it helped the upper class who managed to make the most aggressive profits from improving trades and production that required less physical labor (Takeda, 64).

One of the aforementioned benefits of the Second Industrial Revolution is that it improved inter-contiental business relations- this was especially seen through the migration of skilled workers who helped develop the industry, allowing for effective transportation in technical innovations and the spread of aesthetics (Takeda, 64).

The prospering economy was a direct result of the profitable fashion industry, which saw profit not only from the citizens themselves but foreign investment as well. This was advertently tied to the development of machines that cost much less than hiring a worker in the long run (Carl Snyder, 63). However, despite the machinery being quite developed, they were not entirely self-sufficient and needed care from workers. Furthermore, there were still certain intricacies in the production process that could not be completed by machines and required human labour to complete (Snyder, 63). Just as there were different classes of people, there were different levels of production, the upper level being Haute Couture, and at the other end, lower quality form of production was the use of ‘sweat-shop’ techniques-clothing produced quickly and poorly (Yarwood, 92). Contrasting these two techniques it is entirely evident that Haute Couture was produced with care and designed meticulously, as opposed to the ‘sweat-shop’ techniques - Haute Couture was often produced with less machine work as it utilized significant attention to detail (Yarwood, 92), whereas ‘sweat-shop’ techniques used manual labor to work the machines. The finished product of this technique were garments of much less desirable quality, and yet this is what the lower classes would lean towards due to the significantly cheaper price. Thus, despite the workers producing higher quality garments, they could not purchase them due to the enormous wealth inequality present at the time.

Emphasis on the mode of production was of the utmost importance, a design that once took an artisan hours to create could not be made quicker due to the advent of mass-production (Yarwood, 92). Throughout the Second Industrial Revolution, European economies went through multiple waves of panic, culminating in minor crises’ in the mid to late nineteenth century which evidently was the outcome of overconsumption of consumable goods (Snyder, 63). The development of the construction of dwellings, the creation of roads, and the rapid development in communication became significant parts of everyday life; this includes the development of any machine which helped manufacture or clean garments with ease (Snyder, 63). A long term comparison was that there needed to be a balance between constructional activity and the growth in population, which meant more machine work had to be implemented in order to mass-produce and keep up with the growing population (Snyder, 94).

Improved medicine and hygiene had been able to further reduce mortality, therefore, the population was able to increase steadily(Yarwood, 107). This signified that industrial development in mass production and mechanization had accelerated in order to sustain the growing population, and the machinery was required to become increasingly efficient, meaning that technological innovations to achieve this was also becoming increasingly important (Yarwood, 107). The development of empire establishment under the jurisdiction of the countries of western Europe absorbed all goods as a result of increased productivity (Yarwood, 107). While the population expanded, so did the middle class. The middle class expected and thus received, a better standard of living (Yarwood, 107). Continuing development and mechanization had contributed to a marked increase in the total production and quality of fabrics, leading to a wide variety of goods reaching a larger proportion of typical citizens (Yarwood, 107).

Department stores became fully established around this time period (Yarwood, 107). Stores that opened in the USA had made their way internationally to western Europe (Yarwood, 107). With the increase of department stores came a tremendous increase in the number of fashion journals being published by nearly all of Europe (Yarwood, 107). By the 1870s, women of the middle class were beginning to purchase ready-to-wear garments as these were of much higher quality than previously produced garments (Yarwood, 107). The advent of the sewing machines’ performance marked a greatly improved system which made ready-to-wear clothes more accessible (Yarwood, 107). The effectiveness of machines were seen through sewing machines, which were purchased in great quantities in order to mass-produce clothes. Additionally, the development of a band-knife became popular (Yarwood, 108). The band-knife was an invention that would cut through thick cloth at once, it was a great advance in the clothing manufacturing industry and hence became popular amongst workers (Yarwood, 108). The manufacturing process helped the department stores to increase their profits. The transformational nature of this mechanized process allowed for them to mass produce, and consequently shape the department stores that we have in the present day.

In large towns, laundry became heavier and more abundant. This lead to an increase in people sending clothing off to the launder (Yarwood, 119). This custom was only adopted in homes that had inadequate space within the town, as drying and ironing were mechanized and consumed a significant amount of space. The chemical processes were also thought to injure the fabrics (Yarwood, 119). In suburbs and countries, all washing was done at home, unlike towns where the washing was taken to the launder to protect the finer, decorative garments (Yarwood, 119). This brought along more job opportunities for the populace, as the middle and upper class would hire household employees to clean garments and fix any broken pieces, and to accommodate any tailoring required. This aided in giving the lower class another way to source an income (Yarwood, 119). By the second half of the century, washing still involved excessive labor, as there were several appliances and aids that were brought forward which provided ease to washing garments (Yarwood, 119).

Conclusion

In conclusion, prior to the Second Industrial Revolution, the European continent had to deal with a great amount of social unrest and continual conflict, where only the most prosperous aristocrats had access to luxurious garments. It was not until the latter half of the Second Industrial Revolution where fashion was technically nonexisting, and attire had a purpose during wear - such as protection against climate or for work. It became less exclusive and not solely for the bourgeoisie, and expanded into the general populace. The luxury of deluxe attire was a privilege reserved for the noble solely because prior to the Second Industrial Revolution, lavish garments were not only provided to the upper class, which shows the improvement of the economy throughout the nineteenth century in Europe through the financial stability of the growing middle class. The Second Industrial Revolution came to the dismay of workers, as machines took their jobs, but it came to an advantage when they used sewing machines, washers, and dryers, etc, to get the job done quickly (Yarwood, 121). Although mechanization in the Fashion Industry was a disadvantage in many ways for workers, it was beneficial for everyday citizens, and a necessary factor to improve on inter-continental business experiences.