Brain Mechanisms of Prosocial and Helping Behaviour

This essay will look to explain what helping behaviour is, focussing on the methods of both social psychology and biological psychology. Further drawing information from the concepts of Bierhoff, (2005) and his understanding of helping behaviour, followed by Henriques, (2011) self or other orientated ideas. The brain mechanisms such as genetics and the influence of oxytocin’s effect on prosocial behaviour. Also looking at the effect altruistic behaviour has on the brains reward system and how this relates to prosocial behaviour.

Bierhoff, (2005) and more recently supported by Bartlett & DeSteno, (2006) defines helping others as performing a task with the intention of benefiting another person over yourself, this however must be done by choice to be defined as helping. There are several methods to define why we help others; such methods follow the concepts created by the different sections within psychology. The biological explanation, also known as altruism; conducted by Burstein et al, (1994), describes helping others as kin orientated. However, Henriques, (2011) states that biologically, we are either self-orientated, or other orientated. The latter, would make a person naturally further inclined to help others regardless of their relationship, creating a reasonable argument against Burstein et al’s claims.

Eisenberg’s ‘Learning Theory’ (1983), is considerably a more holistic approach. He defines this as a method in which the motion of helping is a learnt behaviour, additionally expressing that, the behaviour is learnt through watching. The basis of this method derives from the earlier works of Bandura’s ‘Social Learning Theory of Aggression’ (1978). Moreover Eisenberg, (1983), used the same method of introducing a behaviour to a person, with the expectation that the behaviour would be reciprocated.

Prosocial behaviour can be described as helping behaviour (Greitemeyer, Fischer, Kastenmüller, & Frey, 2006). Penner et al (2005). states that prosocial behaviour is an extensive category of behaviours that are perceived as favourable to other members within society. Additionally, prosocial behaviour can be separated into two forms altruistic and egotistic (Menesini & Camodeca, 2008). With regards to prosocial behaviour it has been discovered that there are genetic factors present within humans, as to why they are prosocial.

The brain mechanisms identified within prosocial behaviour, can be found in the Early work of Knafo and Plomin, (2006), who state that although there are social factors as to why people perform prosocial behaviour, there is evidence that genetics are a vital role in the overall development of prosocial behaviours. This statement is more recently supported by the works of Gregory et al (2009) and Uzefovsky et al (2009) whom explain that there is a direct link between the hormone oxytocin, that can be found within the hypothalamus and utilizes both central and peripheral influence. Further studies by Uzefovsky et al, (2009), focused on the single receptor for oxytocin (OXTR rs53576) emphasising the connection between this gene and empathy.

More recent studies, such as the one of Xia, Wu and Su, (2012), investigated the links between a child being homozygous for the GG genotype and children that are more inclined to adhere prosocial norms. This study measured the toM ability of a child and their amount of prosocial behaviours during a range of three tasks. The toM, or theory of the mind, is the ability of a person’s understanding of another’s emotions and how to act accordingly. (Doherty, 2008). Moore et al, (1998) and more recently Goldstein and Winner (2012), suggest that a child with a higher ToM ability would then understand the feelings and emotions of others, ultimately resulting in prosocial behaviour, such as empathy and helping.

The study executed by Xia, Wu and Su in 2012, involved a group of eighty-seven children aged between three and five as participants. These where then subject to partake in three prosocial behavioural tasks followed by Theory of the Mind exercises. The results of the study further emphases the notion that children with the genotype GG had increased levels of empathy, parental sensitivity and positive emotions, in comparison to their AA/AG genotype counterparts. (Wu and Su, 2015). Further investigations also showed a direct correlation between higher prosocial behaviour and the genetic variation Oxytocin receptor rs53576. The findings also showed that oxytocin receptor rs53576 has a positive effect on a child’s ability to provide help and comfort to another person, these results also highlight the importance of oxytocin and its impact on individual differences within prosocial behaviour. (Wu and Su, 2015).

Studies that detect a plausible link between certain genetics and the likelihood of prosocial behaviour have only recently been carried out due to the evolution in technology, their concept that prosocial behaviour is biological contrasts with earlier social theories. Far more evidence is known from earlier social theories, explaining that many of the children who scored higher on the tests could have done so due to their social background.(Eisenburg, 1983) It is known that many aspects of social behaviour, that being anti or prosocial, are a by-product of learnt socialization Aunola & Nurmi, (2005) later argues that if a parent is supportive and uses positive discipline, their child is more inclined to be prosocial. Although Eisenburg, (1983) claims are older they are also present throughout all discussions involving prosocial, altruistic and helping behaviours, showing great depth to the theory.

Another brain mechanism associated with prosocial behaviour is the concept brought to the forefront by Harbaugh et al (2009), stating that performing altruistic prosocial behaviour activates a person’s reward system within the brain. In addition to this a recent study by Filkowski et al (2016), shows that performing altruistic behaviour heightens the parts of the brain associated with reward, such as the nucleus accumbens, the Ventral tegmental area and the striatum. Filkowski et al’s (2016) theory suggests that helping others activates the reward systems of the brain.

The reward system according to Berridge and Kringelbach, (2015) is regulated by the VTA communicating with the nucleus accumbens, between them they work as a circuit regulating the reward system and responding to pleasurable things such as; eating, sex and drinking. Garret, (2009) explains that when the pleasure centres of the brain are stimulated dopamine is secreted, the secretion of dopamine causes a sense of euphoria. It would be reasonable to suggest that there is a link between prosocial behaviour and the secretion of the feel-good hormone dopamine, due to this the want to perform a prosocial act may be influenced by the previous dopamine reward granted for performing such behaviours.