Impact Of Bilingualism On Education

To effectively analyze the data, the differences in language growth for monolinguals and bilinguals should be distinguished. There are many theories on the development of language for both monolinguals and bilinguals. Bilingual children produce their first syllables around birth which is the same for monolinguals (Kuhl and Ramirez). For monolinguals, a theory can be derived famously from Chomsky, who believed that children have an innate capability of acquiring language. The first stage starts around 6 months of age where infants begin to babble. Around 9 to 14 months infants learn to utter single words. At the age of 2 years, children should be able to speak with two words or “telegraphic speech”. At the end of 24 months, the language of the children starts to develop into complete sentences. Bilingualism can be divided into two subcategories: simultaneous acquisition and sequential acquisition. Simultaneous acquisition is when a child is introduced to and acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3. A child with sequential bilingualism develops their second language around the age of 3 after acquiring their first language. In the first stage of simultaneous bilingualism, the child learns single words, has increased vocabulary and verb tenses, which is the same for monolingual children (Fierro-Cobas et al). From birth to 2 months of age the simultaneous bilingual child involves undifferentiation; having aspects from two languages. Then from 2 to 6 months, the child should achieve the ability to babbling. From 2 to 3 years of age children begin mixing the words of their languages in the same phrase. The next stage begins when a child begins to be able to differentiate between two languages and by the time of 4 years of age they use each language as its own separate system (Fierro-Cobas et al). For sequential bilingualism, the first stage is acquiring the first language in a normal acquisition sequence. The next stage involves gaining a second language with 4 subheadings. The interactional period involves the child participating in nonverbal communication and fixed phrases. The next subheading is the inference period. This is where the grammatical rules of the first language acquired are applied to the second language. The next subheading is the silent period which can be longer with kids that have anxiety. The final subheading is code-switching. This is the phenomenon where a child switches between their two languages or complicates the grammar of their own language. The amount of time a sequential child needs to pass each phase depends on their motivation and socially oriented characteristics. Children who learn a language in their first year of life include being exposed to phonetic units. Some believe that a child in a bilingual environment may be at risk for language delay. Signs of language delay are indicated by a child not talking as much or not understanding as much as other children. This can occur in both monolinguals and bilinguals (Special Kids). The amount of exposure to the second language compared with the first language can affect how the child develops the second language. Research has shown that ultimately language growth is projected directly by the quality and quantity of speech they hear from each of their languages (Ramires-Esparza et al 2016).

Before dwelling on the correlation between bilingualism and intelligence quotient it is important to understand the implications of cognition by focusing on the brain itself considering that early bilingualism can modify the structure of the brain (Mechelli et al 2004).

Research has suggested that individuals with experience in two languages are more likely to have enhanced brain networks that make them more robust for executive functioning throughout one’s lifetime (Kuhl and Ramirez). Executive functioning refers to cognitive abilities such as memory and mental flexibility. This is served by the frontal area, also known as the prefrontal adrenal area.

Not a lot is known about the subcortical structures of the brain such as basal ganglia which incorporates “speech monitoring and language selection processes crucial for bilinguals”. These functions include grammar and phonological acquisition. Pliatsikas et al (2016) conducted a correlational study of the mechanisms of bilingualism on the brain, specifically the basal ganglia and the thalamus. He acquired 20 participants who spoke English as their second language (L2) and various first language backgrounds (L1) and determined their proficiency based on the Quick Placement Test. They were then compared to 25 English native speakers with no second language. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were conducted on each participant. The comparison between the two groups resulted in a significant increase in subcortical structures for bilinguals than monolinguals. However, these results are only due to correlation and not necessarily causation. The researchers were not able to manipulate any variables, merely only being able to study the brain itself. Other variables that may contribute to this trend are but are not limited to biological differences, diet, and other environmental factors. Only 45 participants were accumulated for this study which reduces being able to generalize these results to a larger population. MRI scanners allowed researchers to study the brain without causing any physical nor psychological harm and tested their claim which enhances internal validity. It also removed any possibility of participant and researcher bias as well as any demand characteristics. More than one researcher was used which increases inter-rater reliability. These findings have been sought due to researchers such as Olulade et al (2016) who conducted a study on the premise that “suppression between 2 languages resulting in enhanced executive control (EC)”. Researchers tested this by measuring the gray matter volume. Studies testing the dark gray matter usually pertain to brain tissues that are corresponded to neurons and neural fibers that process information. In this study, 45 young adults were enlisted by fliers placed on campuses in the D.C area. Participants were either monolinguals who spoke English or Bilinguals who spoke both Spanish and English. Questionnaires were given based on “language history, language use, and their own evaluation of their language proficiency”. Bilingual participants reported high proficiency and regular use of both their languages. MRI scans were also conducted and found that bilingual participants had a greater GMV than monolinguals specifically in the prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex, known to make up executive functioning. Implications of this result in individuals with greater control of communication and language skills. Questionnaires, although an easy and replicable task to complete may introduce bias which can affect the results. Participants could have lied on the survey, possibly responding to demand characteristics which lowers the internal validity of this study. The surveys were self-reports which may induce the debate of subjectivity over objectivity. Only 45 participants were used and were confined to specific college campuses which decrease the generalizability to a larger population. MRI scans were used to further strengthen the participants’ self-reports. However, like mentioned in the previous study, the correlation between bilingualism and GMV does not always indicate causation. The lack of manipulation of a variable makes it difficult to establish a strong cause-and-effect relationship. Ethically, this does not prose any physical or psychological harm to the participants. Other structural brain studies have been conducted to suggest that bilinguals have a greater brain tissue density in areas regarding language, memory, and attention with the highest levels of tissue density among individuals acquiring 2 languages before the age of 5 years (Kuhl and Ramirez). Mechelli et al (2004) conducted a study on the relation between structural plasticity indicated by grey matter and aptitude in a second language. The methodology used was voxel-based morphometry which was intended to study the brain from an unbiased, objective standpoint. Researchers gathered 25 monolinguals, 25 bilinguals who developed their second language through simultaneous acquisition, and 33 sequential bilinguals. Results of the voxel-based morphometry indicated that grey-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex was greater in bilinguals than monolinguals significantly in the left hemisphere. Although grey matter for both simultaneous and sequential both displayed an upward trend. Researchers further investigated the relationship between brain structure and bilingualism with native Italians and English speakers. Participants were assessed on capabilities with second language reading, writing, speech comprehension, and production with standardized neuropsychological tests. Overall competence is negatively correlated with the age of acquiring acquisition. This suggests that there is an increase in the density of grey matter in the left inferior parietal cortex of bilinguals relative to monolinguals which are more distinct in individuals who developed the second language at an early age. Both studies required the use of VBMs which investigates the structure of the brain using MRIs with a statistical approach to remove any bias. Researchers tested for what they claimed to be testing for which increases the internal validity of the study. Bilingual participants were only Spanish-English or Italian-English. The results can only be generalized to an extent of those groups with similar linguistic capabilities but not people from other particular backgrounds and cultures. More than one researcher was used which increases inter-rater reliability. There is a possibility of participant bias on the assessment regarding responding to demand characteristics. This study has high replicability due to the simplicity of implementing MRI scans and assessments. The importance of replicability is to ensure that similar results can be attained by other researchers which strengthens the results and claims of a study.