Herodotus: Contrasting Origins of Bravery During the Persian Wars

Regarded as the first true historian, Herodotus' Histories are the first great prose work in European literature. In his final three books, “The Father of History,” as he would become to be known as, focused on the expedition of Xerxes, and the Persians unexpected defeat by the Greeks. However, his work is controversial- critics have branded Herodotus as, “The Father of Lies.” However, with a closer analysis, you will find that Herodotus’ view of the world around him is tied closely to the way the Greeks identified themselves. Herodotus was the first historian to consider the reasons for why things happen, rather than limiting his narrative to just facts. What he thinks is important about the Persian Wars is the causes and ethics of it. A fundamental principle to the Greek culture was areté, which meant excellence and reaching one’s full potential. A fundamental value that reinforced this principle was bravery. The concept of bravery did not mean a man should not fear anything. In fact, according to Aristotle a brave man is both courageous and fearful. The crucial point is that he acts bravely at the right time, in the right manner, with the right motivation. The way Herodotus describes honorable actions reveals the way he views war. Herodotus views wars of expansion as unjust and wars of defense as just. Following the cultural identity of the Greeks, Herodotus believed in the Gods’ divine oversight- that the unjust will be punished. As you will see in this essay, Herodotus compares and contrasts the different tactics used during the war, and ultimately concludes that the Greeks won because of their superior ideals and values that remained constant throughout the wars, while the Persians hubris and fear steered them towards failure from the onset. These values are also reinforced through their cultural identity, proving that the Greeks exemplified bravery in honorable ways, while the Persians only acted bravely through dishonorable ways that were looked down upon by the Gods.

The concept of hubris is a theme throughout Herodotus’ works. Rulers who took on the offensive with the intent of conquest or the enslavement of another nation would be condemned by the Gods. The Persian leader, Xerxes, is guilty of hubris in this context. He is convinced by his leading military commander, Mardonius, to invade Greece. Mardonius, being motivated by desire for power, urges Xerxes to seek revenge and conquer the Greeks. “If we crush the Athenians and their neighbors, we shall so extend the empire of Persia so that its boundaries will be God’s own sky, so that the sun will not look down upon any land beyond the boundaries of what is ours” (Hdt 7.8.c). Xerxes’ hubris makes him susceptible to accepting bad advice. Thus, he goes on to address his council of Persian leaders his reasons for invading Greece- his hubristic ideal of world domination- driven by revenge, and conquest. A common theme Herodotus presents here is that the Persian’s hubris blinds them, making them believe they can defy the God’s and escape their inevitable fate. In contrast, Herodotus does not describe the Greeks as expansionists. Instead, they fought for honor and kinship, while also not disrupting the moral code of the Gods. Contrastingly, the Persians are described as initiating wars to prove their power and prestige, while the Greeks are described as not needing to establish either because their political structure already was proper for them. Furthermore, Herodotus foreshadows the Persian’s defeat while promoting the Greek cultural identity when Xerxes ignores an advisor’s attempt to steer him away from invading Greece. “My lord, amongst men it is the great ones that God smites with thunder, nor does he allow them to show off. Often a great army is destroyed by a little one, when God in his envy puts fear into the men’s heart. For God tolerates pride in none but himself” (Hdt. 7.10.e). Xerxes angrily strikes down this advice and declares he will continue with the invasion because if he does not, the Greeks will invade them. This exemplifies Herodotus’ idea of good and bad bravery. Xerxes exemplifies bad bravery, because he does not take into account strategy. Instead, he is persuaded by fear which is considered extremely un-honorable to Herodotus and the Greek culture in general.

Another example of fear-driven action by the Persians is the dream that is the final convincing factor for Xerxes and his advisor to decide to invade. In Xerxes dream, a figure came to him and said “if you do not at once undertake this war: just as in a moment you rose to greatness and power, so in a moment you will be brought low again” (Hdt. 7.14). Herodotus describes Xerxes and his advisor, Artabonos, as being “terrified,” further promoting his theme that the fearful Persian’s reasons for war were unjust and therefore were destined to fail.

Herodotus portrays Xerxes as unable to understand how the non-autocratic societies of Greece are able to be militarily effective. His illiteracy in the ethics and values of the Greeks exemplifies the contrast of where the Persians and Greeks derive their bravery from. Xerxes exclaims, “How is it possible that fifty thousand men should stand up to an army as big as mine, especially if they are not under a single master, but all perfectly free to as they please? …If like ours, their troops were subject to the control of a single man, then possibly out of fear of him, they might show some sort of factitious courage…but as every man is free to follow his fancy, this is not conceivable” (Htd.7.103). Xerxes seems to think here that the only way to get a man to fight is out of fear of his ruler. His army is full of slaves forced into being warriors. By contrast, Herodotus clearly credits the eventual military victory of the Greeks because of their their more egalitarian social structures. Herodotus has Xerxes’ Greek advisor explain to him what type of fear drives the Spartans: “They have a master, and the master is Law, which they fear much more than your subjects fear you” (Htd.7.104). In this way, Herodotus shows that Spartans are driven to acts of bravery by fear of social sanction. Although Herodotus finds the Spartan version of equality to be more superior than the Persians, he favors the Athenians.

Athenians were driven to acts of bravery by personal ambition because of their individual freedom. “How noble a thing equality before the law is, when the Athenians got rid of tyrants, they became the best at war. When freedom is won, then every man is interested in his own cause” (Htd.5.78). Herodotus explains that because of the Athenians innate superior values, they may live as they please, and are just as ready as ready to encounter danger as the Spartans are, but they derive their courage from the nature of their identity. The Athenians fighting for the morally just reason of freedom is far more powerful than the Persians fight for their ruler. Herodotus infers that this is why some societies produce braver people than others.

Moreover, they are able to use logic and reason to make sound decisions, despite being fearful. The Athenian general, Themistocles, was an amazing strategist and knew how to succeed in the newly Democratic system of Athens. The Battle of Salamis proves his genius in strategy and exemplifies the good type of bravery. Themistocles knew that only by destroying the Persian navy, the Greeks could force Xerxes to reduce the overwhelming size of his army. He reasons that this is the best way to defeat the Persians because his superior naval fleet can function efficiently in the narrow straight and could use that to their advantage (Htd.8.60.b). He threatens his Spartan ally, Eurybiades, by telling him if they do not utilize their naval fleet then he will evacuate the Athenians to Sicily. By following the Greek value of logic and reason, he is able to turn the Greeks fear into bravery and is successful in convincing the other Greek generals to agree to his plan. “Let a man lay his plans with due regard to common sense, and he will usually succeed; otherwise he will find that God is unlikely to favor human designs” (Htd.8.60.c). Herodotus contrasts the Athenian approach to the Persians, whose hubris results in them making poor, illogical decisions, easily coerced by flattery of their advisors. Furthermore, because the Greeks stay in line with the values of the God’s they will be rewarded for their bravery. On the other hand, the Persians will fulfill their inevitable destiny to fail because of their unjust war tactics. Although the battle of Salamis did not end the Persian wars- it was decisive.

It is important to note that Herodotus was obviously biased towards his home country, but following the Greek cultural identity, his bias gives great insight on how the Greeks viewed themselves and the world around them during this time period. Critics consider Herodotus the “Father of Lies.” However, with a closer analysis, you will find that he was most concerned with the causes and ethics of the Persian Wars, being the first historian to consider the reasons for why things happen, rather than limiting his narrative to just facts. Whether one agrees with his approach or not, Herodotus introduced a new style of writing history in which psychology takes a fundamental place. Through his description of facts that took place during the war, Herodotus presents the qualities and attributes which, for his understanding, establish what constitutes as bravery. He concludes that because of the Persian’s inferior values, hubris, and unjust war tactics, they were destined to fail by the Gods’ divine oversight. Contrastingly, the Greeks were destined to win because of their honorable values that stayed constant and in line with the Gods’. The way Herodotus describes honorable actions during the war shows how he views bravery. Although he prefers the Greeks’ overall approach to the Persians’, he favors the Athenians, who were driven to acts of bravery by personal ambition because of their individual freedom. Herodotus main conception of what bravery is, is that it must be in line with the values of the Greek culture. The Athenians fighting for the morally just reason of freedom is far more powerful than the Persians fight for their ruler. Herodotus infers that this is why some societies produce braver people than others.