A Literature Review of the Provisional Expansion of the Shakers

The United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing is an interesting religious group with over 200 years of history. Commonly called Shakers, the group first arrived in America in 1774 with only nine members. This small collection of devoted believers worked tirelessly in the new world to grow their church to over 4,000 members in 1840. The Shaker doctrine fell outside mainstream Christian theology and some of their beliefs, such as a lifelong commitment to sexual abstinence, seemed counterproductive to producing a stable church from such few fledgling members. Yet, despite these obstacles, the Shakers were still able to grow.

This paper is going to analyze three different types of literature that has been published concerning the Shakers, particularly their growth from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth century. The first group will be labeled as contemporary. These works range in dates from the late 1700’s to the late 1800’s. Many of these pieces were written by Shakers or by individuals that worked against the Shakers. However, there are a few pieces that chronicle different individuals’ experiences without any preconceived bias. The second group will be labeled as internal. These works are labeled as internal not because they were produced by the Shakers, but because they focus on Shaker life and culture and how the Shakers viewed themselves. The internal group‘s publication dates range from the beginning of the twentieth century until the late 1970’s. The final group will be characterized as external. Many of these publications examine Shakerism under a critical light and try to examine the decisions made by the elders and eldresses by comparing them to external sources. Most of these books and articles have been published since 1980, but go back as far as 1955. It should be understood that though these three groups have distinct publication periods, dates are not what has divided them. Their divisions are a result of source content and the author’s intent.

The contemporary classification, as stated earlier, is mostly made of publications from the Shakers or other individuals that were trying to discredit their ministry. There are an abundance of works that fall into this category, but this paper will only focus on a few key examples of each. For a more complete list see A Bibliography of Shaker Literature by J.P. MacLean. MacLean’s book contains information concerning publications about the Shakers before 1905.

Non-Shaker publications began in 1781 with Valentine Rothbun’s book, A Brief Account, of a Religious Scheme. Rothbun was an apostate that published his experiences with the Shakers after spending about a year with them in 1780. Despite what he may have considered as an unbiased work, it carries many flaws. A common bias that is seen throughout non-Shaker publications in the contemporary group was an attempt to discredit the religion, Rothbun is no different. Despite this flaw, Rothbun does have some amazing accounts of worship practices and his work was the first to show the public the internal governance of the Shakers.

Many publications followed Rothbun’s style of living among the Shakers and then producing a “tell-all” style book. William J. Haskett published Shakerism Unmasked in 1828. This work took a very critical approach to examining the Shaker’s beliefs and leadership. Haskett clearly had issues with Shaker doctrine and was very open in writing that he believed the Shakers were influenced by false prophets. The book tries to tell the history of how Shakers came to America and their subsequent works in New England. However, any context that Haskett tries to place Shaker behavior into is corrupted by his overt religious views.

Another non-Shaker contemporary publication was David R. Lamson’s book Shakerism As It Is published in 1848. Lamson like many others lived with the Shakers and chronicled, in great detail, their living and worship practices. Lamson made an effort to be impartial and discredited many of the untrue rumors that were still present decades after the Shakers founding in America. However, his religious beliefs are evident in his critique of their worship and doctrine.

The Shakers produced a lot of literature as a way to evangelize and dispel rumors about their religious beliefs. Most of this came out as a way to combat the large amount of critical work that was published about them. These works often contained official histories of the church and would later influence most of the literature that makes up the internal group. The most popular Shaker work was written in 1848 and titled, A Summary View of the Millennial Church, or United Society of Believers, Commonly Called Shakers and was officially authored by Calvin Green and Seth Wells. This book offered a history of the church from its origin in Manchester, England to its establishment in America. It placed great significance on the founder, Mother Ann Lee, and her testimony. The rest of the book is a detailed outline of Shaker beliefs and their history of the Christian church. The book is written clearly and is organized well. The only criticism is that the authors could not examine their own churches history in an analytical method, especially considering it was published by the church.

In 1888 another official Shaker history was published titled Testimonies of the Life, Character, Revelations and Doctrines of Mother Ann Lee, and the Elders with Her. This book obviously focuses on Mother Ann Lee but also those that came with her to America. It is a very detailed account of the persecution the Shakers faced in England and in America. Though it is very detailed, the history concludes before Ann Lee’s death in 1784, therefore it lacks most of Shaker’s history.

However, Charles Edson Robinson’s A Concise History of the United Society of Believers, published in 1893, tried to deliver a history of the Shakers from their creation until the book’s publication. Robinson grew up near the Canterbury, New Hampshire Shaker village and developed several friends within the community. Thou not a Shaker, the reason Robinson’s work is grouped as a Shaker writing is because it was published and distributed by the church. Despite this, his work is very organized and advances beyond the previous official histories by more than forty years. These forty years offer Shaker perspective on their westward expansion into Ohio and Kentucky and their hopes of the southern expansion into Florida.

The contemporary group created a foundation for Shaker history. However both sides were deeply flawed. Especially concerning the developments that led to Shaker growth. The non-Shaker publications believed that Shaker growth came as a result of the indoctrination of false teachings and prohibiting disgruntled members from leaving. The Shaker publications believed their growth was part of God’s plan and really didn’t offer any other explanation. They even cited a prophecy from Ann Lee as to why the revivals began in Kentucky and Ohio. The contemporary group offered little understanding as to why the Shakers were able to grow at such a fast rate despite their disadvantages. It did, however, offer plenty of source material for the internal group.

Of the historians who have worked with the Shakers, none have published more material than Edward Deming Andrews. While he produced many works before 1953, his The People Called Shakers is what most people consider his prize work. The book traces the Shaker movement to its origins in England and the teachings of Mother Ann Lee. Andrews then follows the Shaker relocation to America and the subsequent growth the church experienced in New England. The book concludes with Andrews’ examination of the church’s post-Civil War decline. Throughout the book, the unique Shaker lifestyle is admirably analyzed. Andrews explores the social construction of communal living in the Shaker communities. Like many works in the internal category, The People Called Shakers, focuses on the work the Shakers did as a community. Andrews discusses their labor practices, internal order, and worship practices in great detail. His also states that Shakers were successful for six reasons: (1) religious principles which inspired adherents, (2) religious revivals throughout the world and in the society, (3) cohesive forces of communal organization, (4) control over sexual relation, (5) the economic well-being of the society, (6) the community functioning as a society. He spends very little time explaining why these six factors created success. Also, the book is poorly footnoted. Andrews cites a few books that he deemed most helpful.

As mentioned earlier Andrews was very prolific writer. Unfortunately, many of his works focus solely on Shaker craftsmanship. Visions of the Heavenly Sphere, published in 1969, focuses on religious art produced by Shakers. It examines the spiritual inspiration that was the source for the development of Shaker artwork. Work and Worship: The Economic Order of the Shakers, published in 1974, mainly examines, in detail, the Shaker work ethic and Shaker communal law. The book concludes by lightly touching on the decline of the Shakers due to economic problems after the Civil War. Again, while these two pieces are very informative, there is basically no argument to push the historical narrative forward.

The histories that Andrews presents are of Shakerism as a whole. There are several histories, however, that focus on an individual community. One of these is Julia Neal’s By their Fruits: The Story of Shakerism in South Union, Kentucky. Published in 1947, Neal begins with the origins of Shakerism and Mother Ann Lee, but quickly moves to westward expansion. Its primary focus is the Shaker community in South Union, Kentucky. Neal examines the colony’s foundation and eventual closure. Neal, as well as Andrews and even the church histories, acknowledge that the Shaker colonies established in Kentucky were a result of the new light Presbyterian revivals. However, none speculate or provide evidence of how the new light Presbyterian revivals would be compatible with Shaker beliefs.

June Sprigg’s 1975 publication By Shaker Hands, is a very typical internal look at the Shakers. She focuses on the day to day tasks of the Shakers. Particularly she analyzes how there amazing craftsmanship and architecture was a reflection of their plain lives. It tries to make known the spiritualism behind each piece as well as its functionality. The book also shows many technical advances the Shakers made on their contemporary tools and work equipment.

Another popular topic of Shaker history that infiltrates all three groups is Mother Ann Lee. Nardi Campion’s 1976 biography, Ann the Word:The Life of Mother Ann Lee, Founder of the Shakers, focuses on the female founder of the United Society of Believers. It examines her life before receiving her prophecy as well as her subsequent teachings and move to America. The book continues to follow her until her death in 1784. Most of the books sources are original Shaker publications. Campion also cites Edward Deming Andrews many times. This is why this group is characterized as internal. Almost all of their sources come from the Shaker records and publications. There topics never analyze anything outside of the Shaker communities so there is no American cultural or social perspective. It sometimes seems that this group views Shakers as if they were completely isolated. The internal group chronicles Shaker growth but does not analyze it or attempt to explain how it happened.

In the second half of the twentieth century many articles and books were published that reexamine several aspects of Shaker life. These are the publications that this paper categorizes as external works. Most historians have regarded The Shakers as a very egalitarian group. However, starting in the 1990’s several historians published works that caused the topic to be reassessed. Priscilla Brewer’s 1992 article “Tho' of the Weaker Sex": A Reassessment of Gender Equality among the Shakers, examines how accurate the historical approach of gender equality in Shaker communities was. Brewer mainly focuses on the structural changes that occurred after the death of Mother Ann Lee, and the emergence of male leadership. There was female leadership after Ann Lee died but it was only as a result of male allowance. In 1994 Jean Humez’s book Mother’s First-born Daughters: Early Shaker Writings on Women in Religion reassessed the role of women in the society. . It starts by following the founder, Mother Ann Lee and after her death it shifts to the teachings of Mother Lucy Wright. The book then moves to correspondence from distant mission colonies back to the home colonies. Humez concludes with female Shaker spiritualism in the mid nineteenth century.

Priscilla Brewer also published the article Emerson, Lane, and the Shakers: A Case of Converging Ideologies in 1982. This article examines the impact that Shakerism had on Ralph Waldo Emerson and Charles Lane. Brewer contends that Shaker influence on these two men influenced their ideas on Transcendentalism. What makes the article so unique is that it shows the influence from the Shakers on American cultural movements and also the impact that American culture could have on the Shakers. Brewer also published Shaker Communities, Shaker Lives in 1986. The book’s purpose was to show Shakers as they were and not as they wished to be and to analyze the reasons for, and internal impact of the Shakers decline beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century. This level of critique is not apparent in the internal category.

There are also several publications from different authors that use census data to try and formulate a hypothesis for Shaker decline. This first began with William Sims Bainbridge’s 1982 article Shaker Demographics1840-1900: An Example of the Use of U.S. Census Enumeration Schedules. This article basically showed how Shaker membership could be tract using census data. Its purpose was to provide a correct membership total by decade from 1840-1900. With this data he was able to trace the decline and try to offer some external factors that have never been considered before. He used sex, occupation, origin, and age to try and find common factors in tracking individuals. His main accomplishment was that his study provided concrete membership numbers as well as membership movement from community to community.

Bainbridge’s work was be picked up by several researchers. John E Murray’s 1995 article Determinants of Membership Levels and Duration in a Shaker Community, 1780-1880, examines the Church Family records of the New Lebanon Shaker Community near Albany, New York. His purpose is to try and determine why Shaker populations suddenly began to decrease in the 19th century following a period of impressive growth that lasted for several decades. Murray examines the different types of members in the New Lebanon Community by using cliometrics applied to census data to distinguish who was entering the church and who was leaving. Murray’s analysis is of just one Shaker community, but it provides a great deal of information. Murray was able to determine that there was a shift the origin of the community’s membership. The community had a population of members that were from rural areas, but this portion had dropped so much that over half of its new members were from urban areas and had little agricultural experience. Murray blames this shift on economic conditions in urban areas.

Census data has been one of the chief sources for a lot of external publications. In 2001 Metin M. Cosgel’s article The Commitment Process in a Religious Commune: The Shakers, tries to determine the types of individuals that join religious communities and specifically what factors lead people to remain committed members. Cosgel’s results are comprised of an analysis of the 1850, 1860, and 1870 U.S. censuses. He interprets his results through a social process that he believes explains commitment within a religious group. The factors that Cosgel believes determines commitment are institutionalized mechanisms, personal characteristics, and interpersonal bonds.

Murray and Cosgel, both economics professors, worked together to publish Organization and Distributional Equality in a Network of Communes: The Shakers in 1997 and Productivity of a Commune: The Shakers, 1850-1880 in 1998. Both of these articles reexamined the ideas that Shaker communities were economically egalitarian and the falsehood that their communities were more economically productive than other farms. The articles found through using data from the U.S. census enumeration schedules that not all Shakers were economically equal nor were Shaker farms any more productive than other farms in their area.

Building upon work down by both Edward Andrews and William Bainbridge, Stephen J. Stein’s book, The Shaker Experience in America, is the most recent attempt at a complete history of the Shaker religion. Published in 1992, the book divides Shakerism into five chronological parts beginning in 1747 and ending at the time of publication. Stein critically compares Shaker writings against apostates and points out where previous historians have come up short. Like other external works though, Stein places more emphasis on Shaker decline than growth.

The histories of the Shakers all have their place. Between them all, an accurate depiction can be determined. However, no publication has been devoted to understanding how the Shakers defied the logical reasoning that Shakerism should have died when its original members did. A few authors like Charles Robinson, Edward Andrews, and Priscilla Brewer have mentioned American social and cultural movements that were to the advantage of Shakerism. However, none explained how these movements impacted Shaker growth. There are many reasons why the Shaker’s membership declined. The real question is how did they grow?