Winston Churchill During World War I and II

Introduction

In this essay I would like to collect and categorize information about Winston Churchill. I have decided for this topic, because I consider Winston Churchill to be one of the most historically controversial individuals. Having been a military man, a Prime Minister and a Member of Parliament, Winston Churchill made many decisions that changed the World and have an influence on our lives even today. Moreover, many people have very little knowledge about him, because there is too much information that they are confronted with when trying to do some research. I want to make it available for them to broaden their knowledge with little effort.

I will first compile information about his biography, i.e. early life and education as well as later achievements, family and career. Next, I will elaborate on a few highlights of his career, illustrating the controversies and discussing them. I will use sources commonly considered reliable and index them so that it is easy to look them up and make sure you are not being ill-informed. Finally, I will draw conclusions and propose an answer to the question in the title.

Biography

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 in Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire to Jennie Churchill and Lord Randolph Churchill (elected Conservative MP for Woodstock in 1873). According to the biographer Sebastian Haffner, the family were 'rich by normal standards but poor by those of the rich'. His grandfather was a politician as well, having been appointed Viceroy of Ireland. In 1880 Jennie Churchill gave birth to another boy, Jack. (1) Winston and his brother grew up mostly under care of a nanny, Elizabeth Everest, with whom they had a very good relationship. Churchill had no relationship with his father and was also distanced from his mother. (2)

He attended the Harrow School from 1888 till 1893. In 1894 he graduated as a Cavalry cadet at Sandhurst Royal Military Academy. His father and his nanny died in the next year. After this, Churchill was fascinated by military action and used his mother´s influence to be appointed to a war zone. He went to Cuba to observe its war of independence and participated in the suppression of freedom fighters. Churchill was also an admirer of the USA and traveled there to stay at Bourke Cockran´s residence in New York, who had a big influence on him. (3)

In 1896 Churchill left for British India for 19 months, first Bombay with the Hussars and later to Bangalore. During this time, believing himself to be poorly educated, Churchill took up some self-education. He read the works of Plato, Adam Smith, Charles Darwin and Henry Hallam. He especially liked Edward Gibbon's “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”, Winwood Reade's “The Martyrdom of Man”, and the writings of Thomas Babington Macaulay. (4) After joining the Malakand Field Force as a journalist, he wrote a book about the conflicts and titled it “The Story of the Malakand Field Force” in 1897. He used hic contacts to join a military campaign in the Sudan in 1898, where he opposed the brutal handling of the enemy and donated skin off his chest for a grafting for an injured officer. In November 1899 he wrote about the battle in an account he titled “The River War”. (5)

From then on Churchill sought more and more parliamentary involvement. After being selected as one of the two Conservative parliamentary candidates and losing the elections in June 1899, he sailed as a journalist to Southampton in South Africa, the zone of conflict between Britain and the Boer Republic, where he was besieged and held captive. He managed to escape to Portuguese East Africa. His escape caught much attention and in January 1900 he was appointed a lieutenant in the conflict zone. There he victoriously took over Pretoria while criticizing the mishandling of the enemy. He returned home in July. (6) Churchill became a Member of Parliament in 1900 and one of the House of Commons in 1901. He was torn between Conservatives and Liberals, so much so that he left the former and joined the Liberals on 31 May 1904. (7)

In the new government formed in 1906 after the resignation of Balfour as Prime Minister, Churchill requested the position of Under-Secretary of State for the Colonial Office and received it. During his work there, he helped to draft a constitution for the Transvaal, to grant a government to The Orange Free State and ensuring equality between the British and the Boer in South Africa. (8) Starting from August 1906, Churchill made a set of tours, having fun, gambling and playing games, but also meeting some influential people such as Kaiser Wilhelm II and visiting important places such as the Suez Canal. (9)

In 1908 Churchill became President of the Board of Trade in the Cabinet. There he proposed new laws protecting laborer. They stated that mine-workers shouldn’t work over eight hours, workers should have the right to meal breaks and even some similarities to a minimum wage and insurance for the unemployed. In September he married Clementine Hozier who gave birth to their first daughter Diana in July 1909. (10)

Churchill became Home Secretary in February 1910, which gave him control over prisons. There he made a lot of reforms, too. He differentiated criminals from political prisoners and proposed better conditions for the latter as well as libraries and casual entertainment in all prisons. He also reduced lengthy sentences and increased the minimum age for imprisonment to 21. Of the 43 sentenced during his time as Home Secretary, he changed, softened or even dismissed 21. In this time, he also had to deal with the issue of women’s suffrage activists. Churchill didn’t support women’s suffrage till 1918 and the issue remained unsolved till then. (11) In March 1911, he stood up for worker’s rights again and proceeded to do so by becoming President of the Early Closing Association and staying there way into the 1940s. In May, his wife gave birth to their second child, Randolph. (12)

In October Churchill was appointed First Lord of Admiralty. There he led the naval development against the rising German Navy and engaged in an arms race with them. He led some reforms in the navy, too, spending much resources to build new battleships and seaplanes. During World War I Churchill played an active role in foreseeing, preparing for and reacting to the conflict. He was Head of Admiralty, head of aerial defenses, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Minister of Munition and even a Lieutenant-Colonel at some point. At this time his third child, Sarah, was born. He escorted Britain and the world through the whole war. During this time, he made some decisions that ruined his reputation and gave his opponents more power, which led to him resigning from the government in 1915. (13) He formally returned to the Conservative Party by accepting the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924. During his service there, he opted for the return to The Gold Standard, which meant pre-war exchange rates. Considered by Churchill himself to be his greatest mistake, this led to deflation and huge economic consequences for Britain. (1)

The Conservatives lost the general election of 1929. Churchill was not even invited to the Cabinet when Ramsay McDonald formed the National Government in 1931. He spent the next years writing books, letters, newspaper articles etc. as he was one of the most popular writers of his time. His major works include the collection of essays titled 'Thoughts and Adventures', where he expresses many political views and ideas. (1) Although not in any substantial political position at the time, Churchill strongly opposed Gandhi’s peaceful disobedience revolt of the 1920s and 1930s. He stayed politically isolated until 1930. (14)

Being a strong opposer of Germany’s rearmament beginning in 1931, Churchill warned against a Germany too powerful to manage in Europe. In 1932 he became president of the New Commonwealth Society, which was according to him “one of the few peace societies that advocates the use of force, if possible overwhelming force, to support public international law'. He held speeches in 1934 calling for a rebuild of the Royal Air Force, to create a Ministry of Defense and to give the League of Nations a more active role. He held these ideas until 1936, when Germans reoccupied the Rhineland. In June 1936 he met with senior Conservatives to discuss strategies.

There he was able to convince Baldwin that industries should be brought under state control and used to support rearmament against a potential German threat. (1) In the same year, Churchill supported King Edward VIII in the public scandal known as “the abdication crisis”, where the King knowingly intended to marry an American divorced woman. Churchill’s reputation was already very damaged and this scandal damaged it even more. So much so, that he once was shouted down by the Commons and left. He later wrote that he was so smitten in the public eye that people thought his political career was over. He went on to be an isolated critic of the government, but not officially in it. He even received secret information from the government as they thought that an informed critic would be better than someone relying on rumors. (1) On September 29, 1938 the Munich Agreement was signed by Britain on Neville Chamberlain’s decision. The agreement contained granting Germany territory expansion in a region in Czechoslovakia, where most inhabitants spoke German. Hitler had said that this was his last demand and it seemed like this would prevent the outbreak of a war. Churchill held this for humiliation and favored a harder foreign policy. He wrote “We seem to be very near the bleak choice between War and Shame. My feeling is that we shall choose Shame, and then have War thrown in a little later on even more adverse terms than at present”. (15) In the following year the Second World War broke out. On September 29 of 1939 Britain declared war to Germany and Churchill was appointed Frist Lord of Admiralty, the position he held in the First World War, and led much of the war. (1)

On May 1940 the Prime Minister resigned and recommended Churchill as his successor. On this King Edward VIII appointed him to be the new Prime Minister. Churchill would not have become Prime Minister by elections, because he was unpopular with most parties. He was admired by the people though as the man, who is always there at the right time and does the right thing, and that right time being wartime. But nobody could imagine at the time that Churchill would be Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Churchill led the war on the foreign front and in the country, he held many inspiring speeches very popular with the public. His speeches are popular to this day and his quotes are still used with or without context as he was a most eloquent speaker. It is said about him “He is... the slave of the words which his mind forms about ideas... And he can convince himself of almost every truth if it is once allowed thus to start on its wild career through his rhetorical machinery”. (16) His health condition worsened in the years of the war. In 1941 he suffered a heart attack at the White House and caught pneumonia in 1942. It is also recorded that Churchill suffered from long clinical depression. (1)

Churchill was good friends with the American President Roosevelt. During the war Britain and the USA cooperated very tightly and had many strategic conferences, discussing mutually favorable war policies. The USA helped Britain throughout the war and was a big part of the victory against German Nazis. (17) On July 5, 1945 general elections took place and Churchill lost them. He remained in the Conservative leadership as opposition for another decade. He was quite concerned with the Soviet Union being so strong. His doctor reported that he suggested the USA attack Moscow with a nuclear bomb just for prevention. This stance drove him to propose the idea of a “United States of Europe” in September of 1946, which would gather the Franco-German territory with Britain and USA as friends and sponsors. He wrote that Britain was “with Europe, but not of it”. (18)

He returned as Prime Minister after the general elections of 1951. Britain slowly lost its colonial control over Kenya and Malaya as rebellions there started and Churchill was not able to manage the conflict. In the beginning of his second term as Prime Minister, Churchill was mostly concerned with the relationship with the US. Later, as interests of Britain and the US parted over the issues of the Middle East, Churchill’s Cabinet was concentrated on fighting the Egyptian anti-imperialist Revolution. (19) From 1949 to 1953 Churchill suffered two more strokes. His physical and mental abilities went on to worsen until he finally resigned in 1955. At that time, he had had the longest ministerial career in the modern British politics. He spent most of his retirement in his home in Chartwell. In 1963 John F. Kennedy proclaimed him as Honorary Citizen of the United States. (1) Churchill dies on 24 January 1965 after suffering a severe stroke. (1)

World War I

In April 1911 a force of French troops developed in Morocco. This saw a radical reaction by Berlin with a demand of land compensation. This reaction of the German authorities worried Europe so much that Churchill suggested to form an alliance with Russia and France and ensure the independence of Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark. On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by a Yugoslavist group, who were committed to put an end to the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This led to even more unease in Europe and rumors of a war spread soon enough. Churchill prepared the navy for the possible conflict. Britain declared war in August 1914 when Germany attacked Belgium. Churchill was given the responsibility to transfer troops by see to the area of conflict. He managed to transport 120,000 troops in two weeks. (20) In September, Churchill was given total control over the aerial defenses of Britain. He visited the conflict zones personally to get a genuine impression of the situation. During the Belgian defenses against the besieging Germans, Churchill promised Belgian Prime Minister Charles de Borqueville to reinforce Antwerp. He didn’t stand to that promise as he retreated from the city, which he was broadly criticized for. He maintained that it was a necessary strategic move. (21)

In a War Council called by Prime Minister Asquith in November, Churchill suggested to seize the island of Borkum as it is a good strategic point against the Germans. Moreover, he encouraged the development and usage of the tank and financed it with the funds of the admiralty. He also suggested to attack in the Dardanelles to distract Turkey fro9m Caucasus in Russia and possibly even to eventually seize Constantinople. In the new all-party coalition government Churchill ultimately agreed to demote from his position at the Admiralty to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster as part of a condition set by the Conservatives to join the new government. (22) He eventually resigned from the government in November 15th 1915, because his efforts and energies weren’t being used as he was no more in a position to join the War Council. He joined the British Army and became Lieutenant-Colonel, commanding the 6th Battalion on January 1916. According to his wife, he took up active service to recover his reputation. Though his Battalion did not take part in any battle during his command.

World War II

On September 29 of 1939 Britain declared war to Germany and Churchill was again appointed Frist Lord of Admiralty. There he showed much experience and skills but also made some decisions that were and still are considered by many to have been big mistakes. Churchill planned to mine Norwegian waters, which served as a platform for the German to ship equipment. By doing so, Germany would be triggered to attack Norway, where they would meet the powerful British Navy and lose the battle. As soon as this operation was tried, Germany attacked and successfully invaded Norway. (1)

In 1940 Churchill became Prime Minister. He also created and led the position of Minister of Defense, which made him the most influential wartime Prime Minister in Britain’s history. There he tasked his friend Lord Beaverbrook with managing aircraft production and made Frederick Lindemann the government’s scientific advisor. In short time, Britain’s equipment development so drastically that some argue that it was Beaverbrook’s contribution that made the difference in the war. (1) When Operation Barbarossa started in June 1941 and Germany attacked Russia, Churchill soon sent tanks to support Russia. It is true that he did not support communism, but Russia was an ally in the war against Germany and Britain had to support them. He famously said “If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favorable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons”. (1)

Churchill received a lot of help from the United States. The USA had no good reason to join the war and the public did not want USA to waste money, soldiers’ lives and energy in a war that is not theirs. On December 7, 1941 however, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service. Following this, the USA officially joined the war, ultimately bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki with atom bombs in August of 1945 when the war was almost over, which became the first and only time a nuclear weapon was used in a war in history. Critics such as Noam Chomsky, Institute Professor Emeritus ant MIT, hold the opinion that the US government deliberately invited the attack to have a reason to convince the public and join the war. When Pearl Harbor was attacked, Churchill’s first thought was “We have won the war!” (1)

In February of 1945 the German city Dresden was bombed by British and American air forces. It is estimated that about 200,000 refugees were in Dresden at the night of the attacks. Moreover, the city was a cultural center and had little to do with the actual war. Churchill himself stated that it was only to bring terror and had no substantial effect in the war itself. Having happened close to the end of the war, this is one of the most criticized military actions of the Second World War. (1) On 7 May 1945 Germany’s surrender was accepted. After Japan surrendered on 15 August, the war had officially ended. Though Churchill was worried that the Soviets would forget about the agreements and ordered the Operation Unthinkable according to the plan of which the Third World War could have started on 1 July 1945. It was declined by the Chief Staffs of Committee. (1)

Indian Independence

Being very fond of his nation, Churchill often put the interests of Britain before anything else. In his time in India in 1896 he called India “a land of bores and snobs” and later reportingly said “I hate the Indians. They are a beastly people with a beastly religion”. Churchill opposed Gandhi’s peaceful disobedience revolt and the Indian independence movement of the 1920s and 1930s. He declared in 1930, 'that Gandhi-ism and everything it stands for will have to be grappled with and crushed'. In response to Gandhi's movement, Churchill proclaimed in 1920 that Gandhi should be bound hand and foot and crushed with an elephant ridden by the viceroy. Later reports indicate that Churchill favored letting Gandhi die if he went on a hunger strike. (1)

Churchill refused to direct food to the Bengal region, which led to 4 million people dying of starvation in what later was called the Bengal Famine of 1943. His answer to the telegram was the question “why Gandhi hadn’t died yet”. He claimed the Bengal Famine was the Indians’ own fault for “breeding like rabbits”. Editor of the Journal of Genocide Research, calls Churchill 'a genuine genocidaire', noting that the British leader called Indians a 'foul race' in this period and said that the British air force chief should 'send some of his surplus bombers to destroy them'. (23) As the Indian independence movement became more and more powerful and popular, Churchill’s attitude changed at least formally. He started supporting the movement and helping to “make it a success”. His cabinet later funded a mosque for £100,000 in London in recognition of Indian Muslims, who fought for the English Empire. Some historians hold the opinion that his sudden change in demeanor was because he had lost the moral battle and feared for the Empire’s future. (24)

Controversies

Winston Churchill is one of the most controversial historical figures. Some consider him to be one of the greatest Britons ever, some other consider him a genocidal maniac. One issue that Churchill’s critics often bring up is his opposition to women’s suffrage, referring to it as “a ridiculous movement”. He did finally agree to it though and even helped implementing it. (25)

Churchill was very outspoken, harsh and ruthless. This was a crucial element of his great talent of leading wars. In January 1911, Churchill became involved with the Siege of Sidney Street; three Latvian burglars had killed several police officers and hidden in a house in London's East End, which was surrounded by police. After the house caught on fire, Churchill told the fire brigade not to proceed into the house because of the threat that the armed Latvians posed to them. After the event, two of the burglars were found dead. Although he faced criticism for his decision, he stated that he 'thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals.' (26)

Churchill was also a supporter of eugenics. He drafted the Mental Deficiency Act 1913 and preferred the method of sterilization of the feeble-minded. Supporters argue that eugenics was commonly accepted at the time and very popular among politicians around the world, so Churchill was not exceptionally evil in this sense. (27) Churchill's attitude towards the fascist dictators was ambiguous. After the First World War, a new danger occupied conservatives' political consciousness—the spread of communism. A newspaper article by Churchill and published on 4 February 1920, had warned that 'civilization' was threatened by the Bolsheviks, a movement which he linked through historical precedence to Jewish conspiracy. In his 1920 newspaper article entitled 'Zionism versus Bolshevism', Churchill wrote in part: “This movement among the Jews is not new... this world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilization and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality, has been steadily growing”. However, in this article, Churchill praised the Jews who had integrated into the national life of the countries in which they lived 'while adhering faithfully to their own religion', contrasting them with those who had 'forsaken the faith of their forefathers' and come to play an influential role in the rise of the Bolshevik movement. (1) He regarded Mussolini's regime as a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution, going as far (in 1933) as to call Mussolini the “Roman genius... the greatest lawgiver among men.” However, he stressed that the UK must stick with its tradition of Parliamentary democracy, not adopt fascism. (28)

Conclusion

Looking at all the facts, it is very hard to objectively categorize Churchill as evil or good. A good compromise would be to say that he was neither of those. But one thing is sure: He has been idealized a lot. The movie “Churchill” by Jonathan Teplitzky from 2017 portrays Churchill as a very honest moral man, a national hero, who would never hurt a soul. Many people who know little about history fall for such films and consider Churchill to have been one of the greatest people that have ever walked the Earth. So, is Churchill an Angel or a Devil? None. He was human. And not an exceptionally good or bad one. He just wanted to make his father’s soul proud.