The Struggle of African-American History Through Art of Hip-Hop

The word ‘struggle’ has many different meanings and connotations to different groups of people. The Oxford Dictionary defines it as “strive to achieve or attain something in the face of difficulty or resistance”. Perhaps no other ethnic group in the world has faced more difficulty or resistance than the African-Americans. The Slave Trade, just one of many difficulties, occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries; millions of Africans were forcibly transported along the Middle Passage to the United States to work as slaves. During these times slavery was not only legalised, but encouraged, as a way to “maintain a political balance of power” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States). Fast forward 200 years through history, the African-American story has been filled with chapters of discrimination, prejudice and stereotypes, such as the public lynching of Emmett Till in 1955, or the Tulsa Black Wall Street Massacre of 1921. However, there have been highlights, such as the March on Washington in 1963, eventually leading to the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1968. This essay seeks to explore and analyse how hip-hop music has reflected the struggle of African-Americans over the past 20 years.

“I’m sorry, you could never feel my life”, those words form Joyner Lucas’ 2016 song “I’m Not Racist” ring true for every single person, regardless of race, sex, age, or any other people-dividing category. It is humanly impossible for one to fully embrace and empathise for the life of another person, for the simple reason that they haven’t experienced life in the same way. Thus, when one shares their personal experiences of hardships and pain suffered through life, why should anyone else be able to downplay it? Hip-Hop music is one such area, in which it has been used as an outlet for giving the Ghetto a voice; the only people credible enough to speak out on the issues plaguing the ghetto, are the very ones who lived in the ghetto. In 1982, this voice was given a microphone; Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five released their song, “The Message”, the first prominent hip-hop song to voice social issues in the community, not just specific to African-Americans but to all people. Combining a disco sound that was dominating the music industry at the time, with metaphorical, imagery filled lyrics, this song became an instant anthem to all those living in impoverished communities.

In the past 20 years, 3 songs are notable for following in the footsteps of Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five. That is Jay-Z’s “99 Problems” (2004), Kendrick Lamar’s “Alright” (2015), and Vic Mensa’s “Go Tell ‘Em” (2016). All three songs focus on the social injustices that African-Americans have faced and continue to face on a daily basis. However, the three songs each have a different time focus. Go Tell ‘Em describes the injustices of the past, 99 Problems paints the discrimination faced in present day, and Alright is a moment of hope, that despite the slow progress made to reaching social equality, through solidarity, “we gon be alright”. For the purposes of comparing the music to the struggles faced at the time, the songs will be ordered chronologically.

Discrimination of The Present Day (99 Problems - Jay Z)

Jay-Z (Shawn Corey Carter) released “99 Problems” in April 2004, as the third single from his 2003 album, The Black Album (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99_Problems). The song, as its superlative title connotes, details a few of the many issues that Jay-Z faces in his life such as rap critics, an aggressor, and racial profiling from police officers. In his 2010 book Decoded, Jay-Z states he used “99 Problems” to confuse critics and point out their own ignorance by hiding a deeper story behind a superficial chorus. The song gained a lot of attention for the second verse, in which the New-York rapper recounts a personal story in which Jay-Z was pulled over by a police officer for no apparent reason, as well as with no search warrant. Although Jay-Z was guilty of carrying cocaine, which was concealed in his sunroof, it was clear that he was a victim of racial profiling, pulled over specifically because of the colour of his skin.

Despite the song being released in 2004, Jay-Z uses an “old-school” beat, typical of the 1980s rap scene, that makes frequent use of breakbeats. This song takes a drum sample from Rock artist, Billy Squier’s The Big Beat, which was also popular among hip-hop artists during the 80s era. He uses strophic form, starting with the chorus immediately. The chorus of the song is taken from fellow rapper, Ice-T’s song of the same name, and this serves as the base for the rest of the song. The track uses an 8 bar loop throughout the whole song, consisting of an electric guitar with an overdrive pedal - which repeatedly plays an E note, then moves to a D on beats three and sometimes four - and breakbeat drum sample.The song takes its structure from Jay-Z’s vocals, as well as a very distinct increase in dynamics during the chorus. The record is in the key of F#, in 4/4 and is 94 bpm. Apart from just rapping, Jay-Z frequently uses ad libs, as well as doubling. This serves to provide emphasis on specific lyrics, as a way to make sure that what he is saying is being paid attention to. Lastly, during the second verse, Jay-Z quickly switches his vocal tonality in order to imitate the conversation occurred between himself and the police officer.

Jay-Z starts the second verse by rapping “The year is ‘94, in my trunk is raw/In my rearview mirror is the motherfuckin’ law”. This imagery filled line, sets the scene. He is driving in the year 1994, with the cocaine in the boot of his car. However, he then says he sees the “law” in his rearview mirror. This line is an example of synecdoche, a figure of speech, in which the police officer is referred to as the law. This is a significant line, as the law represents the final and highest authority; the be all and end all which connotes that the officer has the final say. He then raps “I heard, ‘Son do you know why I’m stopping you for?’/’Cause I’m young and I’m black and my hat’s real low?”. Jay-Z’s rhetorical question as a response to the police officer not only exposes the stereotypes probably most salient in the officer’s mind, but also mocked the officer as these are the reasons for Jay-Z being pulled over; two things he can’t control (his age and skin colour) as well as his hat being pulled down slightly too much. It should be noted, however, that this was the typical outfit of a gangster during these times. He follows this up with an example of hypophora. He asks another rhetorical question, “Do I look like a mind reader?” and answers it, “I don’t know”. A mind reader is someone who supposedly can view another person’s thoughts. Although this is humanly impossible, he uses this language device to point out how obvious it is that he is being racially profiled, to the point where he can see what it is in the other man’s head. Jay-Z further illustrates how the officer is looking for any reason he can use to incriminate the black man, no matter how small it is. Jay-Z sarcastically raps “Well, you was doing a 55 in a 54”. The irony in this line is first in the fact that a 54 mph speed sign is not possible; no road has that speed limit. Additionally, the fact that he was merely one mile per hour over the speed limit, which is still illegal, technically speaking, however, it was a minor infraction, not worthy of being pulled over, and certainly not possible to spot with the human eye. He then raps, “License and registration and step out of the car/Are you carrying a weapon on you? I know a lot of you are.” Yet another example of racial profiling, the police officer asks not only for proof that he is legally permitted to drive, but also for proof that he owns the vehicle, subtly questioning the possibility that an African-American could legally own a flashy, expensive car. Subtle stereotyping turns into explicit discrimination when the police officer finally asks whether Jay-Z is carrying a weapon, justifying the request by referring to the common assumption that many African-Americans carry weapons on themselves.

Through this hip-hop song, we see the expression of universal civil rights and the request to be treated fairly and justly, despite the colour of one’s skin or their ethnic background. The main point of Jay-Z’s 99 Problems is the plausibility of African-African prosperity as well as the continued and persistent hindrance that institutionalised racism presents to minority races today. The racism shown by the police towards African-Americans, came to national attention during 2013, after the shooting of Trayvon Martin by police officer, leading to the launch of the Black Lives Matter Movement. It was during this time, a period filled with racial tension, nation-wide riots, and public protests at all levels of society, that Kendrick Lamar released “Alright”, as a beacon of hope, and as an anthem of positivity to all African-Americans.

Hope For The Future (Alright - Kendrick Lamar)

Alright was released in June 2015, as the fourth single off Lamar’s second major label album, To Pimp A Butterfly. The song is the seventh track off of the album and features uncredited vocals by Pharrell Williams during the chorus. The album’s title is an antithesis; the word pimp has a very negative connotation and sort of asserts itself to the “ghetto lifestyle”, whilst a butterfly connotes positive transformation, and hope. This holds a deeper meaning, as to rise above and be more than what we are institutionally categorised and sectioned as. Alright serves as a turning point in the album, Lamar transitioning from self-hatred to self-love, best illustrated in two other album songs, “u” and “i”.

The song’s total duration is 3 minutes 39 seconds in length, in 4/4 common time, and 110 beats per minute. The track is centered around a doo wop style vocal harmony, titled 1-ABMI7 AA by Spectrasonics Virtual Instruments. The sample is pitched higher by 1 semitone, then chopped and programmed, in order to resemble and imitate the flow of a machine gun, alluding to the gun violence that had plagued the United States for so long, especially in the black community. The vocal harmony, a collective of voices, speaks to the unity and sense of community that Lamar is trying to return to personally, and on a wider level, as a community. However, its staccato nature, points to the dividedness of the USA at the time. Apart from the vocals, other elements that contribute to the instrumentation in the piece, include a live saxophone, two electric pianos, drums, and a bass guitar (Max Bladel). The saxophone, riffs through large sections of the track, creating parallels between hip-hop and jazz, two influential musical genres that originated in the African-American community. The drums used, are described as “southern style 808 fare”, with which its southern nature, alludes to the strong segregation that used to plague the south, leading to the civil rights protests of the mid 1950s up to the declaration of the Civil Rights Act in 1963. These constituents come together to form an 8 bar loop that repeats throughout the song. In terms of structure, the song features an intro, chorus, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, a second verse, pre-chorus, chorus an outro, and then ends with a poem. This is distinguished mostly through Lamar’s lyrics, however, during the chorus, the song is dynamically at its highest, and the instrumentation is played tutti. Melody is achieved in the piece through Lamar’s vocals, which aren’t always perfectly in tune, but subtly transcends over melodic scales and intervals as well as the heavy usage of chromatic movement (Max Bladel). The chords in the song, frequently utilise the D minor Aeolian scale, however, the presence of the G in the bass guitar, causes the modal quality to shift more towards G Dorian. The chords are emphasised on an “insistent 2 bar rhythmic pattern, hitting the 1, 4, and 2 beats”, this is commonly referred to as a musical palindrome, which has the effect of continually displacing the downbeat.

Lyrically, Lamar draws not only the current issues plaguing the African-American community, but also historical acts of racism discharged on their ancestors. He seeks to remind them that what is happening now is nothing new, and that if they managed to survive all of this, they’ll be alright for the future. Despite the album generally being about his trying to achieve greater purpose, through this song he takes the spotlight off of himself and instead, casts it on his community. Throughout the song, particularly in the pre-chorus and chorus, Lamar uses the collective pronouns, “we” and “our”. For example, in the pre-chorus, he raps, “Wouldn’t you know/We been hurt, been down before/When our pride was low/Looking at the world like where do we go?”. In this line, he uses the idiom “wouldn’t you know”, expressing his dismay over the discrimination-influenced actions towards African-Americans that lead to material, emotional and psychological consequences. He then poses a legitimate question and call for action saying “where do we go”, not only expressing the hopelessness of the situation but also acknowledging that this mission will require a collective effort. In the chorus, the most memorable part of the song, Pharrell Williams shouts, “Nigga, we gon be alright”. He intentionally uses the word nigga to connect with the listener, encouraging them to keep going and not allow the hurdles to become barriers. The word, “nigga” is used almost as a term of endearment, and there is an unwritten rule that the use of the word is limited only to black people. Despite the positivity in the song, Lamar also addresses, and acknowledges, the struggles that they continue to face. In the first verse, he says, “But homicide be looking at you from the face down/What MAC-11 even boom with the bass down?”. Lamar utilises personification to reference the countless killings of black people by the police. He then compares the similarities of having a silencer on a MAC-11, a semi-automatic gun, to having the truth about police brutality and institutional racism being hushed by the media and the general public (genius - Slickk).

He later emphasises this by saying “I can see the evil, I can tell it, I know it’s illegal”, exposing the often blatant acts of racism. Racism is often described as black and white, with no blurred or gray areas, although, this again highlights the racial tensions in the United States of America. However, despite highlighting the opposition, he also addresses internal issues within the community. Beginning the second verse, he says, “What you want you, a house? You, a car?/40 acres and a mule? A piano, a guitar?”. These rhetorical questions, asked in quick succession seeks to question the desires of the youth in the African-American community. He alludes to the expectations of enslaved African-American farmers, in which after the Civil War and the dismantling of slavery, they believed they had a right to 40 acres of land and a mule, as compensation for unpaid labour (https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/forty-acres-and-mule). He also uses triadic structure - three sets of two items that each represent something different; the material possessions of a house and car, the relevance of 40 acres and a mule to African-American history, and a piano and guitar, referring to his artistry.

In order to have hope for the future, Lamar draws on the ever growing list of injustices against people of colour in the United States throughout history, hoping to find strength through weakness. Lamar utilises a peaceful approach, reminiscent of Martin Luther King Jr. who advocated for peaceful protests throughout the 1950s and 1960s, in order to unite people in peace, rather than instigate war and violence. Vic Mensa, however, takes an alternative approach that expresses his patience wearing thin over the continued enslavement of black people in modern day America. In his song, Go Tell ‘Em, he draws inspiration from Nat Turner’s slave rebellion of 1831, a violent protest that resulted in the death of approximately 60 white men, women and children.

Reflecting on the Injustices of History (Go Tell ‘Em - Vic Mensa)

Vic Mensa’s Go Tell ‘Em is the first song on the album, The Birth of A Nation: The Inspired By Album, a companion album to the film of the same name, which portrays Nat Turner’s slave rebellion in 1831. The album was released on September 30, 2016, and contains multiple musical genres, such as Hip-Hop, R&B, and Soul. Throughout the song, Mensa violently confronts modern day racism, tracing it back to its historical roots, frequently referencing police brutality, racial stereotypes, and PTSD - post traumatic slavery disorder. The record is built around a vocal chant, containing several voices, yelling, “Go tell ‘em, go tell ‘em!”. This is where the song gets its name. Aside from the chants, you can also hear claps and foot stomps that imitate that of a march alluding to the idea of a protest. The vocal tract dimensions of the voices, indicate that of African-American women.

This vocal chant is repeated constantly throughout the song. Aside from the vocals, bass guitar and piano keys can be heard lightly at intervals during the song. Mensa also uses chain noses, perhaps to signify the enslavement that still occurs today, not just physically or literally, but mentally; it is often said that the burdens of slavery can be genetic. During the pre-chorus, harmony is introduced, with Mensa’s singing doubled, one in a higher register than the other. Also during the pre-chorus, the piano and bass drop out, so that all that is left is the vocals, drums and chains.

Throughout the song, Mensa references numerous historical events that have left African-Americans feeling belittled and inferior. By recounting these moments throughout history, he sends the message that enough is enough. For example, in the first verse, Vic Mensa’s opening words, he says, “Go tell em, I’m gon’ tell what they don’t tell ‘em/We been under water since they threw us in the boat”. The phrase “go tell ‘em” is to literally tell everyone you know about an event that has occurred, and Mensa goes on to say that he will tell “what they don’t tell ‘em”, meaning he will expose the lies and sugar coated historical recounts, for their true nature so that people will know what really happened. He explains the “truth” that he is going to tell by using a paradox, “We been under water since they threw us in the boat”. Literally, the two can’t both occur; to be under water, and be thrown inside a boat, but here, Mensa refers to the transatlantic slave trade, in which millions of Africans were forcibly transported to the American continent to be sold as slaves.

Despite being “thrown inside the boat”, the black race has been “under water” due to years of slavery, a metaphorical drowning. He then gives two examples of how African-Americans were, and still are “under water”, first he says, “Sellin cotton pickin’ blues/Rock and roll, railroad buildin’/Serving white America before we was dope dealing”. This line refers to the labour that slaves had to endure, picking and harvesting cotton as well as working on numerous railroads, particularly in the South. He then uses a double entendre, in regards to “serving white”. The first interpretation of this is the literal servanthood of African-Americans to White Americans, however, it also refers to dope dealing, the provision and selling of drugs, which are commonly white in colour, thus, “serving white”. Drawing on African-American history, he also refers to the Blues and Rock and roll, two musical genres originating from African-Americans. The second example of being “under water” is a few lines later, where Mensa raps, “But we still can’t cross the street/Without the cops tryna Zimmerman us while the whole neighborhood watch”. In this line, Mensa uses yet another double entendre as he recalls two highly controversial shootings that had taken place in the US over the previous four years. The first was in 2012, in which George Zimmerman, an unregistered neighborhood watch coordinator who was of mixed race, fatally shot a 17-year-old Trayvon Martin, an African-American, after a physical altercation. Although Zimmerman was charged with second degree murder, he was acquitted on all counts, on the claim that Zimmerman had shot Martin in self-defense. The second shooting, took place in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014, where a white police officer, Darren Wilson, shot and murdered 18 year old Michael Brown in broad daylight, after another altercation in which Wilson fired a total of 12 bullets. In similar fashion, Wilson was acquitted with the conclusion that he acted in self-defense. Referring to these incidents, Mensa illustrates the dangers of being black in America, drawing on the fact that those meant to protect, are the ones doing the killing, as well as the fact that even in broad day, where literally the “whole neighborhood watched”, it is still possible to lose your life.

However, Mensa does point out that times are changing. In the first verse, he raps, “They chained us to the action block but now we changin’ the locks/’Cause even Bill O’Reilly daughter out here drinkin’ Ciroc”. During the period of slavery, slave owners would often auction their own slaves in an exchange for money. Naturally, these slaves would try to escape their plight and thus, slave owners found it necessary to chain them to the auction block. Mensa flips the script, where he says “we changin’ the locks”. In this context, he draws inspiration from black entrepreneurs such as Sean “Diddy” Combs as a way of saying that Black Americans are no longer being used for the profit of White Americans. Combs has a 50 percent stake in Ciroc Vodka, a successful alcoholic beverage brand, so successful that even Bill O’Reilly’s daughter, of who her father is often considered a stereotypical white man, drinks it. This furthers the idea of cultural change, as a white woman is now the source of money for a black man. Despite this, Mensa acknowledges the fact that many are still enslaved, even today, perhaps not physically but mentally, and systematically. To this, he takes inspiration from Turner’s rebellion, embracing the risk of losing his life in the hope of achieving a greater goal; freedom. In the second verse, he raps, “I die on my feet ‘fore I live on my knees”. This attitude, of preferring death over enslavement, is a sentiment that has been echoed by other African-Americans, particularly in hip-hop. Californian rapper, Vince Staples said similarly, “I’ll be sittin’ in a grave, ‘fore I be sittin’ in a cage”. Mensa further emphasises this decree in the pre-chorus, one of the final words of the song, rapping “So take these chains or give me death”. This is an allusion to Partrick Henry’s famous Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death speech in 1775, in which he stated, “I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” Mensa uses these words to highlight the hypocrisy in America; White colonists were celebrated for their fight for freedom against Britain in 1775, but black citizens are condemned and labeled as “terrorists” when fighting for equal treatment.

Whilst Jay-Z’s 99 Problems speaks to the racial profiling of black people, even in spite of their success, Kendrick Lamar’s Alright encourages African-Americans to remain peaceful with the assurance that things will get better. However, Vic Mensa’s Go Tell ‘Em, released shortly after Lamar’s “Alright”, rejects this peaceful approach, and demands a radical change in society, with no regard for risk.

Conclusion

Hip-Hop music is often synecdochically referred to as the voice of the streets. In a system that hypocritically limits the access and opportunities of minority ethnicities, it can be difficult to have your voice heard or your needs met if your have more melanin in your skin. Hip-hop, over the years, has been labelled as dangerous and violent, and this is due to its frequent use of violent and profane rhetoric. However, as Kendrick Lamar once said in an interview with TMZ, “This is reality; this is my world. This is what I talk about in my music.”. As evident in these three examples, the method and tone of communication may differ slightly, depending on the current circumstances, however, the underlying theme of African-American prosperity is consistently present.

Musically, through techniques such as sampling, hip-hop artists have managed to blur the lines of space and time, by using elements from the past, in the present. This has proven effective, as it helps emphasise the fact that the discrimination and racial tensions that were displayed over a century ago, are still present today; perhaps in a different form, but present nonetheless.

The African-American struggle is complex, due to varying opinions, and perhaps even fortunes throughout history. Although it is possible to work your way to success, due to the systematic racism that exists in the United States, this is often hard to do. Whilst thousands have found success in different areas of society, such as business, politics and entertainment, millions more are stuck in an endless cycle of poverty, not just physically but also mentally. Over the past 20 years, two of the biggest issues in the African-American community has been poverty and police brutality, based on racial profiling. Hip-Hop frequently addresses these struggles, in an attempt to inspire black youth that prosperity and success is possible as black citizens, as well as expose the often fatal, unjust crimes in their neighborhood that usually lack media coverage and frequently go unpunished.