The Moral Ethics and Human Causes of Trophy Hunting 

Trophy Hunting

Trophy hunting is a multidiscipline practice that occurs on a broad ecological and socio political landscape making significant economic contributions. Trophy hunting involves searching, tracking, chasing and killing game for their trophy which is done often by foreigners who are willing to pay for the experience and trophy attained (Lindsey et al., 2007). In this context, a trophy is any item prepared from the body of game animal killed by a hunter which may be skull, horns, antlers, tusks or skin and kept as souvenir for the memory of a successful hunting expedition (Barnett and Patterson, 2005). Hunters in this case look for those individuals with outstanding phenotypical characteristics, for example, big body, large horns, well developed mane and big tusks among others (Muposhi et al., 2015). Trophy quality is the sum of measurable dimensions and the aesthetic appeal of the collected trophy (von Brandis and Reilly, 2007). Trophy hunting is differentiated from other hunting practices because it is purely leisure, sport and the main motive is acquiring the trophy especially of dangerous or big game such as lion (P. leo), buffalo (S. caffer), leopard (P. pardus) and elephant (L. africana) (Lindsey et al., 2007)

Types of Hunted Species

Game animals can be classified into two distinct groups namely big and plains game, that is, animals such as elephant (L. africana), buffalo (S. caffer), lion (P. leo) and leopard (P. pardus) are considered dangerous game and the experience of hunting them is valued much by hunters (Steinmetz et al., 2010). They are regarded as big game and are the main attraction for trophy hunting clients and are the focus of marketing hunts (Booth, 2002). The other group of game animals is referred to as plains game and it is composed of the bulk of antelopes such as impala (A. melampus), kudu (T. strepsiceros), waterbuck (K. ellipsprymnus), bushbuck (T. scriptus), giraffe (G. carmelopadalis), and zebra (E. quaga) among others. They are often sold as complementary species of a hunting bag and their availability in a bag can make the hunt even more interesting. In addition, the rarity of an animal also determines its value to hunters and the hunting of a rare animal and collection of such trophy is deemed a great achievement (Steinmetz et al., 2010).

Quota Setting

A quota is defined as the maximum number of animals that can be harvested from a population per year without jeopardizing the ability of the animal populations to self-replenish (Darkey and Alexander, 2014,). In Zimbabwe, quotas are designed by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA), after a population assessment survey to ensure that the changing animal populations attain sustainability of the industry (Barnett and Patterson, 2005). To ensure that off take of endangered species will not be detrimental to their long-term survival, the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) is accountable for establishing quota setting rules internationally which all signatory countries should comply with. Quotas are set based on parameters which include trophy quality, hunting effort, latest animal population trends and growth rates (Crosmary et al., 2015). Zimbabwe`s quota setting uses a bottom up approach which includes the participation of all stakeholders which are involved in trophy hunting from district level. The ZPWMA utilization office has the right to issue the quota through the Director General and upon the Minister`s approval.

Quota setting provides an important mechanism to regulate off-take such that harvesting of wildlife species remains sustainable because uncontrolled harvesting of wildlife species have led to the extinction of aniamals like Equus quagga (Equus quaga quaga) and blue buck (Hippotragus leucophaeus) (Child and Suich, 2009). In addition to that, information on quota utilization when related to trophy quality can be useful in assessing the population status of an area (von Brandis and Reilly, 2007, von Brandis, 2004). When hunters are able to fully utilize their quota suggests that the hunting area wildlife populations are still viable. On the other hand, underutilization of quotas may mean wildlife populations have declined and persistent harvesting becomes unsustainable (Selier et al., 2014). The main challenge in quota setting particularly in developing countries is coming up with explicit population estimates to combine quota setting with the ecological theory of maximum sustainable yield (Wilfred, 2012).

Hunting Ethics

Trophy hunting is governed by a set of rules and legislation which constitute the code of conduct for every hunter (Barnett and Patterson, 2005). In the context of good sportsmanship, hunting ethics are there to promote fairness in the execution of a hunt in what is termed a fair chase which was adapted to in order to maintain trophy hunting at a high level of sportsmanship and ethical action (Lindsey et al., 2006). Hunting ethics are there to ensure best practices which promote the survival of wildlife populations and protection of biodiversity through sustainable utilization of wildlife. They must be observed by all individuals involved in hunting and failure to do so will result in heavy penalties being imposed or the hunting permit being cancelled. Although hunting ethics may differ across nations due to varying hunting traditions, their purpose remains solely to promote sustainability (SCI, 2008). Hunting ethics discourage hunters from shooting animals from vehicles, shooting visibly pregnant or calving females, shooting animals on water points, overshooting quotas, shooting animals within 400 m from non-consumptive use protected area boundaries and using tracking devices to search for trophy animals among others (Lindsey et al., 2007). The conservation role of trophy hunting is undermined mostly by the failure to respect and observe hunting ethics resulting in shooting from vehicles, the use of baits to lure animals from national parks (Groom et al., 2014)

Hunt Organization

The hunting season normally spans from March to December. Upon receiving quotas, outfitters embark on hunt advertisement to seek hunting clients either online or physically in trophy hunting markets such as Dallas in United States of America. Species such as elephant, buffalo, lion and leopard are the major focus of marketing a hunt (Booth, 2002). Documents which are essential for a hunt to take place are the hunting permit, Tourism return 2 (TR2) form, NP11 form and other clearances with the customs office (Barnett and Patterson, 2005) A fully licensed Professional hunter (PH) accompanies hunting clients to assist in trophy selection as well as monitoring hunting ethics. A hunting party may comprise of the client, observer, PH, trackers, skinners, photographer and a ZPWMA agent.

Methods Of Trophy Measurement

There are basically two approaches to trophy measurement which are the Rowland Ward established in 1892 and the Safari Club International (SCI) method established in 1978(von Brandis and Reilly, 2007). Hunters need to pay particular attention to individual requirements and standards for the set trophy measurement method for their hunting association (Gandy and Reilly, 2004). The SCI method is the most widespread or traditionally used by hunters since about 80% of trophy hunting clients are Americans and it is also the recommended method by the ZPWMA. There is no requirement for the drying out period for most species before the trophy measurement except for the elephant which should be given 60 days between the kill date and measurement (Quimby, 1999, SCI, 2008). This is in contrast with the Rowland Ward method which requires a trophy to dry out for 30 days after the kill date for measuring to occur except for crocodile.

The SCI method makes use of measures of the trophy length, thickness and complexity (straight, spiral and volume), for example, it measures the length on the outside curl from tip to tip plus the straight line width measurement for both bosses for buffalo (S. caffer) for a combined total score in inches (Gandy and Reilly, 2004). This criterion however favours immature bulls whose horns will still be long and tips sharp and above the boss since mature bulls will have worn out horn (Gandy and Reilly, 2004). The total horn length measurement is used for antelopes such as impala (A. melampus) and kudu (T. strepsiceros) where the horn length from the tip to the base is combined with the base circumference for both horns to give the total trophy score (SCI, 2008). Most carnivores are scored using the skull length measurement. The application of the Rowland ward is species specific and the method uses only the greatest outside spread of horns for buffalo (S. caffer).

Trophy Quality

The main motive of trophy hunting is collecting the trophy and the higher the quality of the trophy the more prestigious the hunter become (Barnett and Patterson, 2005). Trophy quality is defined as the sum total of measurable dimensions of a trophy as well as its aesthetic appeal (Wilfred, 2012). Although the aesthetic appeal of a trophy lies in the perception of the beholder, trophy quality is to a larger extent a function of the trophy size. Trend in trophy quality is useful indicator of the population status and sustainability of trophy hunting in a given area (von Brandis, 2004). Trophy development with age mean that phenotypic expressions which hunters pursue in trophy animals are usually more pronounced in mature individuals that will have crossed their breeding line and so high quality trophies suggest sustainable off-take (Damm, 2008). For example in buffalo, a perfect trophy bull will be between 9 and 12 years when the bull has passed its breeding ability. A decrease in trophy quality is an indicator of population decline and such a scenario point out the scarcity of trophy animals leading to limited selection options for hunters thereby settling for smaller trophies (Wilfred, 2012). Poor trophy quality is also associated with reduced hunting success and an increase in hunt effort which prompt hunters to adopt an, “if I do not take it the next hunter will take it,” attitude (Taylor, 2007). The harvesting of poor quality trophies brings to question the sustainability of trophy hunting since these make up the breeding population of any area thereby limiting the chances of population replenishment (Crosmary et al., 2015). Trophy quality is also an economic indicator, where good trophy quality is attributed to South Africa`s dominance in the hunting industry in Africa (von Brandis and Reilly, 2007) Poor trophy quality leads to income loss due to hunter dissatisfaction, therefore, in order to ensure sustainability, trophy quality assessment is crucial in monitoring in trophy hunting.

Factors Affecting Trophy Quality

Trophy quality is affected by a number of factors which may be human induced, biotic and abiotic (von Brandis, 2004). Human induced factors include poaching, hunting pressure and other indirect factors such as corruption, land ownership and human wildlife conflict. Biotic factors influencing trophy quality include genetics, diet quality together with abiotic factors such as drought.

Human Induced Factors

Human activities have always been important environmental determinants, for example activities like poaching have got serious implications on wildlife populations. Poaching is currently one of the major threats to biodiversity, that is, illegal harvesting of wildlife exert more pressure on populations already subjected to legal harvesting pressure. There is rapid expansion in commercialized syndicate poaching targeting important trophy species such as Elephant and Lion through sophisticated methods which include botched trophy hunts. Human encroachment aggravates the situation by creating a dependency on wildlife in the form of bush meat hunting together with habitat loss as a result of expansion in agricultural farms (Lindsey et al., 2011). Overutilization is another human induced factor affecting trophy quality and this occurs when hunters overshoot allocated quotas leading to excessive hunting pressure (Loveridge et al., 2006). This depletes the huntable species of an area to unsustainable levels reducing trophy quality. However hunting pressure does not necessarily lead to reduced trophy quality if off-take remains within sustainable limits (Muposhi et al., 2015).

Human induced factors which indirectly affect trophy quality include corruption, land ownership and human wildlife conflict (Barnett and Patterson, 2005). Corruption is associated with overlooking of important practices in the trophy hunting industry which favour good hunting practices due to the manipulative power of money (Damm, 2008, Lindsey et al., 2007b). Corruption goes as far as allocation of concessions where wealthy concession seekers may be awarded concessions at the expense of technically competent individuals. Bribery also lead to disregard of hunting legislation and ethics that support sustainable hunting practices thereby negatively impacting trophy quality (Groom et al., 2014). Land ownership models also indirectly influences trophy quality by determining the level of management intervention in a hunting area. In this regard privately owned hunting areas have been reported to perform better in terms of trophy quality due to management interventions such as cross breeding and restocking practices (Muposhi et al., 2015). Ownership arrangements such as lease hold are associated with overhunting of lucrative trophy species such as elephant (L. africana), lion (P. leo), leopard (P. pardus) and bufalo (S. caffer) thereby compromising trophy quality (Lindsey et al., 2007).