Critical Analysis Of The Study About Children In The Street

This essay will critically analyse an ethnographic study which discussed the issues about children in the street. The location of the study originates from Mexico, Ciudad Juárez. The uncovering from the study showed crucial concern on how it has affected in establishing childhood. Factors such as child labour worries present scholars of childhood (Kehily, 2013), where children are seen as chattel to support their families when times are difficult (Lancy, 2015) and Kjoholt (2004) mentioned that children are seen as representative feature and as target of challenging form of interaction.

The different cultural factors affects the different occurance of street children and how the community can stop children from leading the street life (Jenssen, 2007). Children in the street are subject to hostility and aggression from the general public (Trussell, 1996). Punch (2003) also added that this was seen as a universal circumstances that children in the ‘third-world’ country tend to work than to go to school to play as a childhood. Trussell (1996) states that the uprising number of street children is a crucial social problem, UNICEF (1985), supports by mentioning that approximately 1. 5 million street children live and work in Mexico.

The findings of the study showed that there are different stages of suspicion, hatred, and aggressiveness between street children and gangs, police and the community (Trussell, 1996). However, Ali (2011) mentioned that street children, regardless of the many different geo-cultural settings, shows that being young and living or working on the street seems to make extraordinary cross-cultural similarity in children’s capacities. The rationale of this study is to have an in sight of the situation and to look at the conduct of street children in Ciudad Juarez. Street children Robert and Raven (1991) states that from working as a beggar, giving shoe-shining services, car washing, selling of cigarettes in the streets as well as living in the street; under the bridges or sewage pipes, is how the word "street child" comes about and they are also seen as an abandoned child. They also believed that some street children came about from families who depend on their children as the only source of income (Robert & Raven, 1991). Berman argue that street children learn to adapt with their situation by situating survival, as the elimination of hunger and physical restrictions and the embrace of the social order of the street above all the dread of exploitation (Ali, 2011).

There are three different classification according to UNICEF (1985); children at high risk, children in the street and children of the street. James et al. (1998: 103) mentioned that work are seen as mainstream and visible in majority world childhoods whereas the minority world childhoods regard play to be the fundamental (Boyden, 1996: 20). Children at high risk are the largest group who reside in extreme poverty (Trussell, 1996) which most live in slums without sufficient education, general facilities, or group agenda (Lusk, 1988). Whereas Jensen (2007) mention that children in the streets spend most of their time in the street, Trussell (1996) however states, they still keep of hold with their family but does not attend school in a regular basis. A portion of children in the street enlarge towards the children of the street which Mickelson (2000) said they does not keep in touch with their family and self-supporting themselves. Often, they are either orphans, abandoned, or more frequently have run away from their families (Trussell, 1996). The Mexican economic decline and the subside of Mexican Peso in 1994 has left a great impact on families (Chanuvilana, 1995). The Mexican earns an approximately of US$4 per day of which they need $18 to feed the family’s basic needs (Trussell, 1996).

The rise of street children in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico were due to such economic conditions. Punch (2003) supports by mentioning that major part of the world's children resides in the economically poverty-stricken area of Latin America, Asia and Africa. Trussell (1996) mentioned that street children in Ciudad Juárez share many interchangeable with their equivalent in other Latin American countries. Yet, in the context of globalized model, the third world childhoods contradictory classified as abnormal whereas the western believe that children should play and learn but not work (Boyden, 1990). According to Connolly and Ennew (1996), Ennew (1994), Hect (1998) and Miljeteig (1999), many child research focuses on non privileged children such as street children, child labourers and child prostitutes which occur mainly in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Up to 98% of the children working on the street voiced out their reason for being on the street was due to the family need and pressure (Taib & Ahmad, 2014).

Factors such as the socio-economic status, pressure on abusing and violence families, drives the children to the streets (Osthus & Sewpaul, 2014). Sewpaul et al. (2012) also mentioned that poverty, abuse and violence are duplicating on the streets, with there being an obvious absolute continuity between involvement in the home and on the streets. Many of the ruling socio-cultural supposition of females are confront by street life, and the females oppose establishing femininity, such as being independent, compliant and decent (Connell, 2009). Morrell (2007) also add on by mentioning that the street life challenged ruling constructions of manliness, and boys are seen as to be the source of income, being responsible and respectable. Trent (2007) mentioned that children on the streets falls into the category of which were not exposed to opportunities of jobs, restricted or no education and some without identification which is necessary for formal employment and for legal activity to be carried out. Poverty should not be seen as little income or hunger, but more general as little exposures and withdrawal of human potential (Sen, 1999) that constantly lure people into poverty. Their intersectional pitfall gives the children with little set of circumstances, and sex work was one of the choices available (Osthus & sewpaul, 2014).

However, in contrast, there might be no better situation to see children's determination and perseverance than on the street; which what Conticini and Hulme (2007) name a 'display' of managing procedures. Swart-Kruger states that opposing to popular belief, street children may not certainly society's eccentric, and that 'they should stand out for the extraordinary bravery, creativity and intuitive knowledge of human nature which they must hold to survive on the street' (1988). Regardless of the variety of geo-cultural setting, research on street children proven that being young and being on the street seems to give unbelievable cross-cultural similarity in children's abilitiness (Ali, 2011). Researches in the sector of East Africa, Brazil, China and India have mentioned the resilience, inventiveness, creativity and alertness of children in the street (Felsman, 1989; Aptekar, 1990a; Patel, 1990; Leite & De Abreu Esteves, 1991 Lucchini, 1996; Hecht, 1998; Verma, 1999; Hussein, 2003; McFadyen, 2004; Orme & Seipel, 2007). Child labourBy definition, work are seen as activities that provides goods and services for others in exchange for a salary (Reskin & Padavic, 1994: 1). Kefyalew (1996) also mentioned that children's work usually associate to unpaid work for their family needs, which includes agricultural, house and animal-related work. In famous and media discourses most part of the world children who work from an early age - 'took up adult's role and responsibilities' (Kefyalew, 1996) which Boyden et al. (1998), Ennew (1994) and Green (1998) supports that children tend to be conceptualized as small-scale adults.

According to the ILO (2010), from the year 2004 to 2008, there was a decrease in the number of girls and children under 15 years old working, however, the number of boys from the aged between 15 and 17 working, increases. Punch (2003) states that children are naturally small in size, lack of strength or height to do some adult jobs such as ploughing or reaching maize stored in trees. Punch (2003) also added on that due to the lack of knowledge and skills, it does not encourage children are not able to do the job. Examples mentioned by Punch (2003) such as pruning fruit trees or ploughing in a straight line are work which required to be done with accurate precision, otherwise the quality and quantity of the harvest will decrease. Hence, we might have the image children could do adult job but in reality, certain jobs require physical ability and/or a certain skills or knowledge (Punch, 2003). In Juarez, many families attempt to improve income by adding more than one worker into the labor market (Lusk et al. , 1989).

The rural part of Mexico community often include children in the range of adult's activities which result to the attentiveness of children who was pushed to observe and be part of their families' work and social lives (Rogoff, Paradise, Mejia Arauz, Correa-Chavez & Angelillo, 2003). 'Labour carried out by a child under the minimum age given by the national legislation for the job, and work that threaten the physical, mental or moral well-being of the child are known as dangerous work' ’ (Minimum Age Convention, No. 138, 1973); and Convention 182, which covers 'unrestricted "worst" form of child labour, are world-wide labelled as slavery, trafficking, debt collector and other forced labour, forced enlistment for national services, prostitution and pornography and illegal activities' (Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No. 182, 1999)Barnardo (1999) mentioned that childhood is once in a lifetime experience. Thus, he said that children deserve to be safe, to be emotionally, mentally and physically stable, and to feel belonged with their family, at school and in the community. Barnardo's believes that giving a helping hand to the non privileged children, is never too late nor early as it create an opportunity for the children to have a brighter future ahead (Barnardo, 1999).

Childhood are often associated with the time to play. However, the NGO model, oppose the majority view on childhood as mentioned by Nieuwenhuys (2007). 'The model NGO child has a traumatic personal story of utmost abuse that gives a negative image on both parents and society which are the main factors to provide the child knowledge and nourish them. Children are seen as a process of becoming an adult with certain educational skills which Montgomery (2003) added that it is the adult's responsibility to ensure the children are provided with the necessary education and ensuring the children's development to become a mature and reliable citizens. A report in 2000 on East Asian crisis indicates the decrease in enrolment rate and an increase in child labour among children age 10 to 14 years old in the Philippines (Lim, 2000). The result of the crisis also causes the rise of misusing of girls in Indonesia and Thailand. (Kane, 2009). Kane (2009) mentioned that children in Asia and the Pacific have been taken advantage in agriculture, manufacturing and home services, as well as construction, fishing, and other street related activities.

The sexual exploitation of children, was known as an unrestricted worst form of child labour, also the one which is a constant issue in the region (Kane, 2009). ‘Chattel’ children Definition of childhood from Edwards (1996) and Save the Children (1995) is considered as a memorable moment where there is a need for protection, without the involvement of adult's world, especially adult's responsibilities of work. Edward (1996) and Save the Children (1995) also mentioned that children who does not receive those factors are labelled to have an 'abnormal' childhood. Mayhew believe that childhood is the time for the children to play and be carefree, also to be safe from the adult world of work and are well taken care off (Kehily, 2013). Kehily (2013) also mentioned that the view of childhood innocence should be conserve is prevalent and it can work on different stages. Taken from a philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), the romantic discourse protest that children manifest a state of innocence, purity and natural virtue that could be corrupted by the outside world. Childhood 'culture' has been defined by James et al. (1998) as 'a form of social work, a mean of being a child among other children, a specific cultural way, rich with certain times and places'. Punch (2003), the culture of childhood revolves around their surrounding environment, which control the area they play, the equipments which they use and their availability to leisure activities.

As such children from the rural areas do not know how to play police and thief or war games as they played with soldiers by lining them up in groups laid out opposite one another and took turns to snap marbles at them to kick them over (Punch, 2003). In contrast to the Puritan discourse, which believe that children are born evil and without moral and sense of right and wrong, and if were to be left them alone, it will lead to savagery. Hobbes (1588-1679), supports this discourse, and mentioned that adults are responsible in shaping the children even if it results to the child unhappiness, short-term pain or distress. Kehily (2013), children were regard as innocent and pure in Trondheim, because they were children. She also mentioned that in Liverpool, children were seen as wicked, corrupted and were considered as 'useless'. Often children are being judged and seen as innocent which are defined by their sexual, emotional or physical. When the innocence gets corrupted, so are their childhood and once that has been demolished, they undergo the same situation and difficulties as adults, despite their age and knowledge (Kehily, 2013).

Overall, there should be an awareness that the disadvantage children from the majority world might share similarities with the working children in the minority world than with middle-class children from the same country (Hecht, 1998: 83). Hussein suggest that ‘it is the continual vulnerability to aggressiveness that puts pressure on the children to find ways of undergoing agony’ (2003, p. 44)To add on, Taib and Ahmad (2013) research indicates that half of the street children experienced from anxiety disorders which the numbers were more than the general population of 10% to 15%. However the number for depression increased among the street children by 10% when compared to the widespread of 2% to 8% among the general population. In contrary, Monterio and Dollinder (1998) sees potential in children in the streets as they grew stronger in their character of initiating and positive identity. Lugalla and Mbwambo (1999) also supports by saying that children living in the street in Tanzanian, are 'grouped with children who share equipments, plans, goods and care'. These evidence of how determined children on the street are found to be missing from the investigation whether these characteristics were developed by being on the street or by moving on to the street.

In essence, it has proven that there are different range of wariness, violence, aggressiveness which developed in a street children (Trussell, 1996). However, Monterio and Dollinder (1998) sees potential in children in the streets as they grew stronger in their character of initiating and positive identity. Nevertheless, it is vital for the children, families, and the communities to understand and be equipped with knowledge on the rights of these children so as to protect them (Bibars, 1998). The results are valuable for reflections about the different kind of preventative measures are significant to establish in order to prevent children from entering the street life (Jenssen, 2007). Ultimately, not only the programmes to avert children from falling into 'child labour' and ensuring they are in school, is necessary and important. It will be crucial to constantly observe the impact on families of continuing economic crisis and of the programmes that have been proposed (Kane, 2009).

As Taib and Ahmad (2011) mentioned, the family needs and income constraint urge the children to work on the street. To a certain truth, a control structure is also a tender system and a net of safety (Jenssen, 2007). Importantly, the big and other prevention to fight against poverty and inequality could counterthe despair of the children's experience, as it give an opportunities for them and givethem a better chance to plan for a future (Osthus & Sewpaul, 2014). Indeed, a profound change of the society is necessary, both in terms of patriarchy and neoliberalism, and the formation of an economic structure that is organized to meeting people’s needs rather than destabilizing them (Dominelli, 2002:

The different kind of strategies which can be implemented to improve the situation would be:

1. Programmes should be imposed around the child's needs and not to focus only on the negative and traditional perspective of an adult.
2. Proving educational resources as an opportunity for the children to find knowledge and for the community to learn too (Bibars, 1998).