A Project On Hydraulic Fracking

Hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’, is a method used by drilling engineers to stimulate or improve fluid flow from rocks in the subsurface. In brief, the technique involves pumping a water-rich fluid into a borehole until the fluid pressure at depth causes the rock to fracture, (D. Healey, July 2012). Extracting natural gas from unconventional sources is more complex and costly than conventional natural gas recovery. Technological improvements, however, have made extraction from unconventional sources more economically viable in recent years. In particular, the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has greatly increased the productivity of natural gas wells.

These new techniques have also raised concerns about the adverse environmental and social consequences of these practices, especially effects on water resources, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014). [image: ]Injecting large volumes of fluid into the subsurface is not without risk, and recent reports in the media and, to a much lesser extent, in the scientific literature have highlighted the potential for the following, (D. Healey, July 2012).

• Earthquakes induced by slip on nearby faults;
• Contamination of ground water, and possibly even drinking water, with natural gas and other chemicals;
• Emissions of volatile components, such as CO2 or methane, into the atmosphere;
• The leakage of contaminated drilling waste fluid from storage ponds.

The coverage of the potential environmental impacts of fracking is currently dominated by material originating from the USA. Fracking has a long history in the United States, and statistically the number of proven environmental impacts demonstrated to have been caused by fracking remains small in relation to the volume of fracking activity, (D. Healey, July 2012). One estimate is that approximately one million oil and gas wells have been drilled and fracked (University of Texas, 2012). The EPA report estimated 25,000 to 30,000 new wells were drilled and hydraulically fractured annually in the United States between 2011 and 2014.

Approximately, 6,800 sources of drinking water for public systems were located within one mile of at least one hydraulically fractured well during the same period. Colorado was a distant second, while Pennsylvania and North Dakota were third and fourth respectively, (S. Larkin, February 2016). Natural underground fractures, as well as those potentially created during the fracturing process, could also serve as conduits for groundwater contamination (Myers, 2012). Coal bed methane is generally found at shallower depths and in closer proximity to underground sources of drinking water, and therefore accessing natural gas from this source might pose a greater risk of contamination, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014). A study in New York and Pennsylvania found that methane levels in drinking water wells in active gas production areas (less than 1 kilometre, or about five-eighths of a mile, from wells) were seventeen times higher than in those outside of active gas production areas. An isotopic analysis of the methane suggests that the methane in the active gas production areas originated from deep underground (Osborn et al. 2011).

The fracturing fluid used is a crucial component of hydraulic fracturing, not only concerning the technical characteristics (rheology1, formation compatibility, etc. ) but its environmental impact. Indeed, several among the main environmental concerns associated with shale gas fracturing today are due to the usage of water: the high volumes of water used and lost underground, the need to process flowbacks, the potential contamination of aquifers by leaks of chemicals employed in the fracturing fluids, etc, (L. Gandossi, 2013). Methane is not currently regulated in drinking water, although it can pose a public health risk. Robert B. Jackson of Duke University and his colleagues (2011) note that methane is not regulated in drinking water because it is not known to affect water’s potability and does not affect its colour, taste, or odour. Methane, however, is released from water into the atmosphere, where it can cause explosions, fires, asphyxiation, and other health or safety problems, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014).

All fossil-fuel extraction activities come with some risk of surface water or groundwater contamination from the accidental or intentional release of waste. In the case of hydraulic fracturing, common wastes of concern include fracking fluid, additives, flowback, and produced water. Fluids released onto the ground from spills or leaks can run off into surface water and seep into groundwater, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014). It has been said that the best way to cure is preventing this also happens at the storm water management level in order to prevent and ground water contamination. Stormwater runoff carries substances from the land surface that can be detrimental to water quality and ecosystem health and deposits them into local waterways. While runoff is a natural occurrence, human disturbances to the land surface have increased the timing, volume, and composition of runoff, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014).

Modern natural gas drilling requires the clearing of three or more hectares (typically seven to eight acres) per well pad, which includes area for the pad itself plus additional land for access roads, waste pits, truck parking, equipment, and more, (Johnson 2010). Stormwater discharges are regulated by state and local governments. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program regulates stormwater runoff at the federal level, although states can receive primacy to administer their own permitting program, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014). Since that time, the federal government proposed rules associated with fracking dealing with air pollution, the placement of condensate tanks, carbon dioxide emissions, methane emissions, diesel fuels, usage of public lands, the protection of water resources and pipeline inspections, (S. Larkin, February 2016). Numerous states have proposed or enacted regulations related to fracking.

The most prominent recent trend in state legislatures is their attempt to require chemical disclosure, along with other fluid regulation such as proper disposal and additive stipulations, (S. Larkin, February 2016). Groundwater pollution can be minimised through good borehole construction and the maintenance of the well bore integrity, coupled with intensive and close monitoring which can be achieved through the application of industry best practice. There is a need for detailed assessment and augmentation, where necessary, of the framework applicable to the upstream petroleum industry as a whole to ensure robust regulation and compliance monitoring, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014). In order for the regulations to be effective, better co-ordination between departments and adequate resourcing of regulatory and enforcement agencies is required. Regulations relating to water usage and disposal, in particular, require in-depth study and analysis, (H. Cooley and K. Donnelly, 2014).

There is an ongoing debate about the relative leakage rate of methane into the atmosphere from the exploitation of shale gas in comparison to the emission rate from conventional gas (Howarth et al. , 2011). This is potentially important because a high leakage rate might mean that methane released by fracking operations into the atmosphere from shale gas extraction could have a higher net greenhouse gas footprint than, say, coal. Fracking operators should therefore seek to minimize all emissions to the atmosphere, and monitoring processes need to be actively enforced. (D. Healey, July 2012).

Evaluation of best remediation strategy - comparison of treatment strategies and discussion on suitability, including cost assessment. Hydraulic fracturing means individual opportunity for prosperity and overall economic growth. Hydraulic Fracturing, (Unlocking America’s Natural Gas Resources, February, 2017). Effective hydraulic fracturing regulation can only be achieved at the state level as state regulations can be tailored to geological and local needs. Key state regulations include: Review and approval of permits; well design, location and spacing; drilling operations; water management and disposal; air emissions; wildlife impacts; surface disturbance; worker health and safety; and Inspection and enforcement of day-to-day oil and gas operations, (Unlocking America’s Natural Gas Resources, February, 2017). The development of advanced hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling has been accompanied by safe and responsible water management strategies employing innovative technologies to allow reuse of fluids produced during the fracturing phase of well development, (Unlocking America’s Natural Gas Resources, February, 2017). 10. Analysis and improvement of treatment methods used - details of adopted approach and application of advanced knowledge.

The members of the American Petroleum Institute are dedicated to continuous efforts to improve the compatibility of our operations with the environment while economically developing energy resources and supplying high quality products and services to consumers. We recognize our responsibility to work with the public, the government, and others to develop and to use natural resources in an environmentally sound manner while protecting the health and safety of our employees and the public, (Unlocking America’s Natural Gas Resources, February, 2017).

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made:

• Allow normal exploration (excluding the actual hydraulic fracturing), such as geological field mapping and other data gathering activities (e. g. hydrological studies) to proceed under the existing regulatory framework.
• Constitute a monitoring committee to ensure comprehensive and co-ordinated augmentation of the regulatory framework and supervision of operations.
• Augment the current regulatory framework. The establishment of the appropriate regulations, controls and co-ordination systems is expected to take 6–12 months.
• Departments of Science & Technology and Mineral Resources to collaborate in developing mechanisms for the co-existence of the Astronomy Research Projects and development of shale gas in the Karoo.
• Once all the preceding actions have been completed, authorise hydraulic fracturing under strict supervision of the monitoring committee. In the event of any unacceptable outcomes, the process may be halted.
• Ongoing research to be conducted and facilitated by relevant institutions to develop and enhance scientific knowledge in respect of the development of Karoo shale gas. This includes, albeit not limited to, geo-hydrology of the prospective areas, methodologies for hydraulic fracturing in RSA and environmental impacts.
• The actions required to give effect to the proposed conditional approval must be properly resourced, incorporated into the programmes of the relevant departments and agencies and capacity developed.