Understanding Origin and Nature of Crime Through Criminology Theories

There are many theories of criminology witch attempt to explain the origin and nature of a crime. Depending on what lens one may choose to look at crime, different thoughts propose useful ideas to the task of understanding criminal behavior. For this study, I am specifically interested in the psychological theory of criminology because it is strongly linked to many of the contemporary and emerging issues of crime around the globe today. This theory is widely debated by theorists as it gives a useful perspective of where crime stems from and what can be done to address the emerging challenges. Sigmund Freud (1923) considers the human personality as composed of three energy systems: the Id, the Ego and the Super-Ego. the human (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions. Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according the pleasure principle (gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drivers) witch Freud called Eros and Thanatos. Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual survive; it directs life- sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by life instincts is known as libido.

In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as the set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct. The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego’s goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind. The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner. The basic dilemma of all human existence is that each element of the psychic apparatus makes demands upon us that are incompatible with the other two. Inner conflict is inevitable. For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is a conflict between the goals of the id and the superego, the ego must act as referee and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894.1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety. Freud’s provocative theories are still a huge part of psychology, neuroscience, and culture. Freud was startlingly correct in his assertion that we are not masters of our own mind. He showed that human experience, thought, and deeds are determined not by our conscious rationality, but irrational forces outside our conscious awareness and control. As a result, Freud laid out his plan for treatment: psychoanalysis. The treatment has been in use for many years with many adaptations given to it. On the plus side, psychoanalysis do present a client with structure and time to resolve neurotic issues. On the negative side there is always expressed concern over the cost. Being that it does take time for psychoanalysis to be effective. To narrow the cause of aggressive behavior, many experts agree that the major factors that play a part in aggressive tendencies in humans can be traced to biological and psychological causes, observational and social leaning, and alcohol- induced factors. Scientists have shown that there are two areas in the brain that either regulate or affected aggression; the amygdala and the hypothalamus (Wikipedia.org,2007). According to Aronson (2004), aggressive behavior in humans as well as some animals can be traced to an area of the brain called the amygdala. When the amygdala is electrically stimulated, it causes the organism to become violent. The hypothalamus also plays a role in aggressive behavior. This area serves as a regulator in terms of aggression (Wikipedia.org, 2007). When the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated, like the amygdala, aggressive behavior ensues, however, it “has receptors that help determine levels on their interactions with the neurotransmitters serotonin and vasopressin” (Wikipedia.org, 2007).

The male hormone testosterone also influences aggression in human and animals (Aronson, 2004). James Dabbs and his colleagues discovered higher testosterone levels in those convicted of violent crimes than those convicted of non-violent crimes, and in another independent study, animals that were injected with testosterone became more aggressive than those who were not injected with the male sex hormone (Aronson, 2004). The neurotransmitter serotonin is another chemical with implications for aggression. Serotonin was shown to have a negative correlation with aggression, which helps to explain the aggression -reducing and calming effects of serotonin reuptake inhibitions such as Prozac (Wikipedia.org, 2007). Another neurotransmitter, vasopressin, has also been shown to increase aggressive behavior, but only when present large amounts within the anterior hypothalamus (Wikipedia.org, 2007).

Another major causal factor of aggression is alcohol-related. Controlled laboratory experiments have revealed that those who become legally drunk are apt to respond more violently when provoked than those who drank little or no alcohol. (Aronson, 2004).

Alcohol- induced aggression can also cause two types of aggressive behavior: self-inflicted injury or suicide. (Berman and McCloskey, 2003), and displaced aggression (Aviles, Earleywine, and Pollock, 2005). In non- experimental studies, two thirds of individuals that inflected pain upon themselves also used alcohol at the same time, and many had blood alcohol concentrations greater than.10. Those who attempted suicide and even those who were successful had elevated blood alcohol concentrations (Berman and McCloskey, 2003). “In sum, alcohol intoxication appears to be an important correlate of self-aggressive behaviors across the spectrum of lethality” (Berman and McCloskey, 2003). With displaced aggression induced by alcohol, if the person cannot aggress toward the initial provocateur, they will direct agression toward an innocent party (Aviles, Earleywine, and Pollock, 2005).

Observational learning and social learning is another major factor in the cause of aggressive behavior. According to Richard Griggs (2006), “ observational learning is learning by others and imitating their behavior, it plays a major role in human learning.” A famous experiment conducted by Albert Bandura which involved kindergarten- aged children and a large inflated clown doll called Bobo proved this point. When the adult demonstrated aggressive acts toward the doll, the children later did the same, and even repeated some of the same words. The children who had not witnessed the aggressive adult were less likely to engage in such aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll. (Griggs, 2006). Another popular example of social learning is the effects of violence and the media on today’s children and adults. Studies have shown that the average 12-year-old children has been exposed to over 100,000 acts of violence on TV. According to Aronson (2004), “the more violence individuals watch on TV as children, the more violence they exhibit years later as teenagers and young adults.” From these findings, aggression appears to be not only innate, but also a learned characteristic.

Part B Recommendation for three criminal justice system policy changes

Death Penalty. Within the world of justice there is perhaps no area as highly contested as that of capital punishment. In the modern area, the question has again been raised: should we continue to use the death penalty as a punishment for some crime? Although the use of capital punishment is never taken lightly, our society is moving towards a time and place where it is no longer and acceptable form of punishment. The use of death penalty should be abolished from the justice system for the three major reasons. First, from a moral point of view, it is not a human punishment (despite arguments that is indeed ethical because of the original crime). Dante (2014). Second, from a empirical view, the death penalty is not working to deter certain forms of crime. Finally, the death penalty is economically and unsound practice, which costs the taxpayers a great deal of money. For these reasons, the death penalty should be abolished. The United States, as one of the most developed nations in the world, should follow the trend that has been set by many others developed nations of the world and put to rest this uncivilized punishment that follows the mentality on an eye for an eye.

Stop the use of solitary in prisons, special for juveniles. Solitary involves isolating inmates in cells that are barely larger than a king-sized bed for 22 to 24 hours per day. It wreaks profound neurological and psychological damage, causing depression, hallucinations, panic attacks, cognitive deficits, difficulty with thinking, paranoia, anxiety, and anger. Boston psychiatrist Stuart Grassian (2006) wrote that “even a few days of solitary confinement will predictably shift the EEG pattern towards and abnormal pattern characteristic of stupor and delirium” If a confinement is enough to fracture a grown man, though, it can shatter a juvenile. One of the reasons that solitary is particularly harmful to youth is that during adolescence, the brain undergoes major structural growth. Particularly is the still- developing frontal lobe, the region of the brain responsible for cognitive processing such as planning, strategizing, and organizing thoughts or actions. One section of the frontal lobe, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, continues to develop into a person’s mid-20s. It is linked to the inhibition of impulses and the consideration of consequences. We must also reform our laws to ensure that children are detained only as a last resort and never held in jails or prisons designed for adults. Children should never be subjected to a cruel practice that works against the rehabilitation and violates their fundamental human rights.

Gun Control- The implementation of gun control in the United states is a large problem as it will take away the 2nd Amendment rights and would also stop the ability of law abiding citizens to protect themselves from criminals who obtain guns illegally. The right to bear arms is promised to the citizens of the United States, and to put gun control into effect is to take away their Constitutional rights. Crime is very high in cities that have few gun control laws. However, the problem will not be solved by taking guns away from people who are registered and licensed to carry them. There are several ways to buy guns in the US. You can buy them from licensed retail outlets, a gun show, online, and through a private sale. Background checks are only required if you purchase a gun through a Federal Firearms Licensee (FFL), which includes retailers (anyone from Walmart to mom and pop shops) and some individuals. You do not need to undergo a background check, if you buy a gun online, through a gun show, or through some private sales. Americans have never responded well to prohibitions. For example, during the prohibition of alcohol, many ways were found to obtain alcohol illegally. Gun control could result in similar methods of obtaining weapons illegally. Alternatives to gun control would be for, law enforcement and government officials to work together to take unregistered weapons off the streets. Obtaining warrants to inspect suspicious homes, such as known gang fortresses are a possible solution to removing unregistered guns from the streets.