The Evolution of Medicine: From Botanical Medicines to Germ Theory

During the Age of Enlightenment, the 18th century, science was held in high esteem and physicians upgraded their rank by becoming more scientific. Across Europe, medical schools relied totally on lectures and readings. Laboratory work was uncommon, and dissections were rarely done thanks to legal restrictions on cadavers, leading to little direct benefit to health care. Botanical medicines also became popular between the 16th, and 18th Centuries. Spanish pharmaceutical books during then contained medicinal recipes consisting of spices, herbs, and other botanical products. During the gradual increase of the worldwide trade market, the Spanish empire brought spices and herbs, together with many other goods, to different locations across the world. Herbs and spices were especially popular for his or her utility in cooking and medicines. The Spanish Empire did exploit cultivating herbs and spices, but they also introduced pre-Columbian American medicinal knowledge to Europe. Other Europeans were inspired by the actions of Spain and decided to undertake to determine a botanical transplant system in colonies that they controlled; however, these subsequent attempts weren't successful.

Rise of Modern Medicine

Modern medicine, or medicine as we all know it, began to emerge after the economic Revolution within the 18th century. At that point, there was a skyrocket increase in economic activity in Western Europe and also the Americas. Scientists made rapid progress in identifying and preventing illnesses and in understanding how bacteria and viruses work. Medicine was revolutionized within the 19th century and beyond by advances in equipment, chemistry, and laboratory techniques. Old ideas of communicable disease epidemiology were gradually replaced by advances in virology and bacteriology. The history of medication of the 19th century became tougher to portray since the discoveries multiplied, and also the number of eminent doctors was so great that the history was on the edge of becoming a series of biographies.

By the start of the 19th century, the structure of the anatomy was almost fully known, because of new methods of microscopy and of injections. Even the body’s microscopic structure was understood. Certainly, the foremost spectacular discovery was the demonstration that certain diseases, were directly caused by tiny living organisms. This discovery achieved an entire revolution within the practice of surgery and changed the entire face of pathology.

Although that throughout the late Middle Ages, basic models of germ theory were introduced by physicists like Ibn Sina within 1025, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib in the 14th century, and Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, and extended by Marcus von Plenciz in 1762, these theories were held in disdain in Europe. The nature of this disdain prevented the scientists from understanding how diseases actually functioned, causing predictable consequences.

For many centuries many people believed in the concept of spontaneous generation. Which is the hypothesis that some vital force contained in or given to organic matter can create living organisms from inanimate objects. The idea was attractive because it meshed nicely with the prevailing religious views of how God created the universe. There was a strong bias to legitimize the idea because this vital force was considered a strong proof of God's presence in the world.

The theory resulted in countless debates between scientists. The debate over the theory continued well into the nineteenth century, with scientists serving as proponents of each side. To settle the controversy, the Paris Academy of Sciences offered a prize for resolution of the matter. Louis Pasteur, a prominent French chemist who had been studying microbial fermentation and therefore the causes of wine spoilage, accepted the challenge:

In 1858, Pasteur filtered air through a gun-cotton filter and, upon microscopic examination of the cotton, found it filled with microorganisms, suggesting that the exposure of a broth to air wasn't introducing a “life force” to the broth but rather airborne microorganisms. Later, Pasteur made a series of flasks with long, twisted necks during which he boiled broth to sterilize it. His design allowed air inside the flasks to be exchanged with air from the skin, but prevented the introduction of any airborne microorganisms, which might get caught within the twists and bends of the flasks’ necks. If a life force besides the airborne microorganisms were accountable for microbial growth within the sterilized flasks, it'd have access to the broth, whereas the microorganisms wouldn't. He correctly predicted that sterilized broth in his swan-neck flasks would remain sterile as long because the swan necks remained intact. However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would be introduced, contaminating the flasks and allowing microbial growth within the broth. Pasteur’s set of experiments indisputably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and using his germ theory of disease, he developed vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies. (The Life of Pasteur)

Moreover, the 19th century marked a great increase of women entering and graduating from medical school. From 1930 to 1980, a period of 50 years, about 34,000 women graduated from medical school. This increase of women in the medical field was due to both political and cultural changes. At the same time, women's ideas about themselves and their relation to the medical field were shifting due to the women's movement. A sharp increase of women in the medical field led to developments in doctor patient relationships, changes in terminology and theory.

Modern Medicine

The 20th century produced such excess of discoveries and advances that in a few years the face of medicine was modified out of recognition. Within the first half of the twentieth century, emphasis persisted to be positioned on preventing infection, and extraordinary discoveries have been additionally achieved in endocrinology, nutrition, and different areas. In the years following second world war, insights derived from cell biology altered basic principles of the disease development. New discoveries in biochemistry and physiology opened the way for more diagnostic exams and more powerful treatments, and notable advances in biomedical engineering enabled the medical doctors and health practitioners to probe into the systems and functions of the body with the aid of noninvasive imaging techniques such as ultrasound (sonar), computerized axial tomography (CAT), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). With each new medical development, scientific practices of only a few years earlier have become out of date.

The 21st century brought in a huge number of discoveries and medical innovations that have influenced everything from the patient's lifestyle to his cabinet. One of the most important discoveries in the medical field was the discovery of the human genome. It was the first time in history that we were able to read the entire set of the human genome and to be able to discover the functions of each of the 23,000 genes. As described by the chief scientist behind the study, the human genome can result in many advances in the medical field. 'It's the precursor for lots of medical advances'(Venter). The discovery of the human genome will also help us to learn more about the diseases associated with genes and hopefully will find ways to prevent them.

The invention of the internet helped doctors and health practitioners to research and has the way medicine is practiced. As reported by John Messmer, 'Early in practice, if I had a clinical question to research, I had to go to the library, pull out multiple years of the Index Medicus, look up the topic, write down the references, go to the stacks and pull the volumes of journals, find the article, read the article, go to the copy machine and make a copy& if I were lucky, I would have my answer in about four hours.' The invention of the internet and the evolvement of technology reduced the use of papers, making the work more efficient and eliminating human errors.

Conclusion

Even though medicine have evolved dramatically across history, the study of medicine never reaches an end. Humans have evolved their approaches to diseases efficiently; however, diseases and pathogens evolve with a faster rate, forcing us to continue researching and innovating our current practices. The human body and diseases have always been a complex area of study that no matter how far we learn about it, there's still much more to learn about. Even the greatest innovators are always finding ways to advance their knowledge. As mentioned by Michelangelo, 'I'm still learning'.