The American, French, and Haitian Revolutions and Colonial Ruling

By the late eighteenth century, Britain’s colonies in the Americas experienced a long-lasting period of unrest. Colonists felt that they were oppressed by every aspect of the growing British empire; its rigid aristocracy, unfair political system, and mercantilist economic interests were all causes for complaint among an increasingly discontented colonial population. To compensate for its massive debt from the war with France, Parliament passed laws that imposed taxes on a large range of transactions for the colonists. This first act sparked a trail of tension followed by rebellious acts such as the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. Colonists consistently fought against Townshend legislation and confronted the British head-on. This lead to a series of attacks against Parliament that became what we know as the American Revolution. In 1776, these colonists declared independence from what they saw as an oppressive and outdated regime, and went to war with their mother country.

During the American Revolution, there were several people who emerged during these conflicts to become historical figures. John Adams served as the Vice President for George Washington and later president of the United States. He first became famous for defending the British soldiers accused of murdering five civilians in the Boston Massacre. Samuel Adams, the cousin of John Adams, organized the first Committee Of Correspondence of Boston, which communicated with other similar organizations across the colonies. He also served as a delegate to both Continental Congresses in 1774 and 1775. Benjamin Franklin was not only a printer and inventor, but he was also a delegate for the Second Continental Congress and a member of the committee responsible for helping to draft the Declaration Of Independence in 1776. Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and later served as the first secretary of state under George Washington and Vice President under John Adams. Thomas Paine was a radical philosopher who published pamphlet Common Sense that convinced thousands to rebel against parliament. George Washington was the first president and served as commander in chief of American forces during the revolutionary war.

After the successful war, ending in the colonists gaining independence, a formal political process needed to be implemented. Immediately following the American Revolution, a new political system emerged which largely disturbed the balance of power in the colonies. In 1779, the Pennsylvania Packet, put forth an argument that stated that all those loyal to the crown should not have a place in American society. The Pennsylvania Packet was created to address those who supported the revolutionary war, and supported the idea behind “tories” not belonging in the colonies.The Pennsylvania Packet highlights the division of the colonists and the unbalanced political systems associated with it. The government during this time was an unstable one, but the emergence of federalists and antifederalists gave way for the two party system which eventually balanced the power. However, this first stage of federalism and confederalism was filled with disagreements that ultimately did not better the colonial government. A prominent social change due to the American Revolution, was women’s roles. Women took on some of the roles of men, but still faced social inequalities. As a result, concepts such as The Republican Motherhood, a movement through which women used their influence in the domestic and familial life to teach their children, became popular. The American Revolution changed the American economy in drastic ways, leading to reduced foreign trade because of war debts resulted in widespread economic depression. Economic depression engendered rebellions by farmers who were impacted by the debts through high taxation. Taxes being enforced upon farmers, along with the influx of goods, caused farmers to be at an economic hardship; resulting in revolts that lead to stopping court order, to protest for equal distribution of property. The American society began to deemphasize farming and began to focus more on production. Slavery was also very prominent during this time. Although, the banishment of slavery wanted to be enacted in the North; the South still depended on slavery heavily. The NorthWest Ordinance protected the institution of slavery in the South. There was controversy on whether enslaved people counted as citizens. If enslaved people were counted in the state populations as citizens they could not be seen as property, therefore the Three-Fifths compromise was created. The Three Fifths compromise counted every enslaved individual as three-fifths of a person for economic means in the south and representation in state. On the continent of North America from 1775 to 1800, America’s revolution changed the role of women, gave way to a new political system, and contributed to a tumultuous economy. These changes mirror those brought by the revolutions of the 20th century, as the subjects of far-reaching European empires in Africa, Asia, and other parts of the Americas demanded a new society.

The Haitian Revolution was a sucessfufl anti-slavery and anti colonial rebellion by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now known as Haiti. French Saint Domingue was the richest colony in the Americas in the 18th century due to the production of products like coffee, tobacco and cotton; but because of the importation of slaves, very distinct and often hostile ethnic groups lived side by side.There were around 20,000 white's divided between wealthy planters and the less powerful petit blancs. Although the petit Blanc's were largely loyal to France, the planters favoured independence because it would allow them to export their crop to more countries rather than just to France. There were 30,000 free persons of color, many of which were mixed race and lived in the south. Some of them went on to own slaves themselves and had more power than the petit blancs; however, they lacked some rights within the French system. Therefore, like the planters they were largely pro-slavery and pro-independence. The bulk of the population was made up of half a million slaves which lived in notoriously bad conditions and they often rose up. Tangents between these groups escalated, leading to the French Revolution.

One of the most prominent figures in the French Revolution is Toussaint Louverture, who was a leader in the revolution. He then became general, and fought off the British, Spanish, and French. Henri Christophe, also known as the 'King' of Haiti used to be a former slave, and then became a key leader in the revolution. His work eventually led him to become president. Cecile Fatiman was part of a religious group, that believed in the voodoo spirit Ezili Danto. She led meetings that helped to start the first stages of the haitian revolution. Jorge Biassou was an early leader of the 1791 slave uprising in Saint-Domingue and also served as the general that helped Toussaint Louverture launch his military career.

The social impact of the Haitian revolution can be seen immediately. The social status that divided the classes of people became more equal for those who were previously underprivileged. After much of the colonial ruling class and much of the white population were killed, an attempt to restore a plantation system that heavily relied upon free labor collapsed. Plantations were divided and distributed among former slaves. Control over agriculture and labor had been lost, which has been the backbone of Haiti’s thriving economy. In turn, the upper class turned more towards urban-based activities, particularly government. In 1804 Haiti declared independence from France.

France, one of the largest and richest countries in Europe was governed by an ancient regime of three rigid social classes called Estates. The monarch King Louis XVI based his authority on divine right and granted special privileges to the First and Second Estates, the Catholic clergy, and the nobles. The Third Estate, middle class merchants and craftsmen, as well as over 20 million peasants, had far less power and they were the only ones who paid taxes, not just to the king, but to the other Estates as well. In bad harvest years, taxation could leave peasants with almost nothing while the king and nobles lived lavishly on their extracted wealth. But as France sank into debt due to its support of the American Revolution and its long-running war with England, change was needed. King Louis appointed finance minister Jacques Necker, who pushed for tax reforms and won public support by openly publishing the government's finances. But the king's advisors strongly opposed these initiatives. Desperate for a solution, the king called a meeting of the Estates-General, an assembly of representatives from the Three Estates, for the first time in 175 years. Although the Third Estate represented 98% of the French population, its vote was equal to each of the other Estates. And unsurprisingly, both of the upper classes favored keeping their privileges. Realizing they couldn't get fair representation, the Third Estate broke off, declared themselves the National Assembly, and pledged to draft a new constitution with or without the other Estates. King Louis ordered the First and Second Estates to meet with the National Assembly, but without reaching a fair solution. In response, thousands of outraged Parisians joined with sympathetic soldiers to storm the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power and a large storehouse of weapons. This led the commencement of the French Revolution.

Important historical figures during the fernch revolution included Napoleon Bonaparte, a general in the French army and leader of the 1799 coup that overthrew the Directory. Another important historical figure is Jacques-Pierre Brissot, who served as a member of the Legislative Assembly and National Convention who held a moderate stance and believed in the idea of a Constitutional Monarchy. Charles de Calonne was the King’s financial officer, who proposed a plan to shift the French tax burden from the poor to wealthy nobles and businessmen, suggesting a tax on land proportional to land values and a lessened tax burden for peasants. The nobles did not agree to this, and he was later forced out of office. Other important figures include Marie Antoinette, Jacques Necker, and Maximilien Robespierre.

The french revolution transformed France from a monarchical state with a rigid social structure to a more modern nation in which the social structure is more loose and people have more political power. The American, French, and Haitian Revolutions had much in common, as each was inspired by a desire to overthrow a ruler and bolstered by Enlightenment thought. They were all part of the “Age of Revolutions”--a historical period (1774-1849) marked by a significant number of revolutionary movements inspired by the ideas of philosophes like John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Beccaria. Without a properly structured government that rightly represents the people and their interests, I personally find it adequate and completely reasonable for these acts of rebellion. In certain instances, like the Haitian Revolution, I believe the war was inevitable in order for slaves to be freed and gain rights. These revolutions were due to the greed and corruption of the ruling entity. After years of suppression and unjust treatment, brute force and backlash is to be expected. I cannot say for sure if it was, in fact, the only option; but, it was an obvious choice that did yield some positive results and began the point of progression that led us to the modern society we live in today.