Invasive Species: Exploring Different Vectors and Pathways

Invasive Species are the world's second-largest danger to biodiversity and they come at a significant cost to the planet's economic well-being. In my perspective, I strongly believe that these invasive species introduced into a new ecosystem can have major negative repercussions for the environment and local biodiversity, as well as for industries and consumers of natural resources, and also for the health and welfare of persons involved in the impacted systems. Every year, they cost economies billions of dollars in lost production, control and mitigation efforts, ecosystem service loss, and a plethora of other ways. Invasive species studies have revealed that they have a high potential for quick adaptability and produces offspring with higher fitness due to their adaptive evolution.

Invasive species can penetrate new ecosystems via a variety of methods. The introduction of species outside their natural range is closely linked to the historical and contemporary movement of people across the globe. Everywhere people have travelled, they have introduced species to new places for food or for social or economic reasons. This type of introduction is called intentional introduction. Many more species were accidentally introduced throughout the world as a by-product of human activities such as trade, travel, and transportation.

Some species are introduced for landscaping or erosion management, while others come unintentionally on various imported items. Many aquatic invasives are introduced by discarding unwanted aquarium plants and other species into rivers. The ballast water of oceangoing ships, purposeful and unintentional releases of aquaculture species, aquarium specimens or bait, and other methods can all introduce an invasive species to a new location.

Some invasive species were introduced as a result of failed efforts to control other invasive species. Rats brought to the Virgin Islands on ships swarmed the sugar cane fields, causing enormous agricultural loss in the 1800s. Farmers introduced mongoose to act as a predatory control for rats. The rats, however, are nocturnal and sleep in trees, but the mongoose was diurnal and cannot climb trees, hence the rats were not eradicated. As a result, the islands now have to deal with two invasive species.

Unintentional introductions have expanded dramatically as a result of the recent fast development of global trade, travel, and transportation. Oceans and mountains, which formerly served as natural barriers to the passage of species, have finally been broken, bringing millions of years of biological isolation to an end. Other species are purposely transported to new locations but released unintentionally, as is the case with animals in zoos and aquariums. Lionfish are considered to have been introduced to the Caribbean, when some lionfish escaped from a shattered seaside aquarium after Hurricane Andrew in 1992. When individuals no longer wish to care for exotic pets, they may release them afterwards.

Process of Invasion: the Introduction of the Species

Species that have travelled from another location must survive both during and after the voyage. Many species will perish if they are not cared for (e.g., aquarium fish). Almost all of invasive plants, on the other hand, spread by seeds, which do not require special handling during transportation.

Reproduction and establishment of the imported species. The survivors must persevere and reproduce effectively (i.e., more than one is generally required) until they create a self-sustaining population. Established populations can reproduce quickly and spread throughout the terrain in some instances. This is the explosion phase which may occur only after a long lag period.

When a plant or animal enters a new habitat, it will very certainly face predators who have not evolved in tandem with them, rendering these predators' incapable of exploiting the prey. In the new habitat, defence systems like as venom, size, and speed that had been matched through adaptation in predators are now unmatched. Because the species is no longer threatened by predators, it may be able to spread quickly. Many invasive insects and fungus in the United States originate in areas where native trees have developed tolerance to their impacts. When these species arrive in the United States, they encounter trees that are not resistant to them, and they may swiftly devastate forests.

Invasive species may also be able to take use of a resource that native species are unable to utilise, allowing them to establish themselves in the new habitat. Barbed goatgrass, which was introduced to the Western United States, flourishes on serpentine soils, while native plants do not. As a result, they now have a foothold in the area. The grass has grown swiftly throughout California, owing to the fact that grazing animals dislike the taste of it.

A lack of predators in the new area is one of the primary factors that makes many species invasive. This is a complicated situation that has evolved over thousands of years in a different location. In a phenomenon known as the co-evolutionary arms race, predators and prey frequently co-evolve. This means that when prey improve their defences, predators improve their methods of exploiting victims. Cheetahs and antelopes are the typical examples of this. Faster antelope have a higher chance of surviving since they can outrun cheetahs. Because they can catch the quicker antelope, the quickest cheetahs have a higher chance of surviving. Since they are always evolving in reaction to one another, neither species obtains an advantage in the end.

Impact Caused By Invasive Species

Invasive species can degrade an ecosystem's natural resources while also posing a hazard to human usage of those resources. Once established in a new environment, some non-native species reproduce and spread across greater regions, becoming invasive pests. Invasive species, like invading armies, are taking over and ruining our natural ecosystems. They disturb the delicate cycle of life for plants, animals, and microbes, and compete for scarce resources Some invasives expand so quickly that they suffocate other species. For example, an invasive plant might transform a forest, meadow, or wetland into a landscape dominated by a single species. Such monocultures have minimal ecological benefit and significantly limit biodiversity.

Invasive species can have a variety of harmful consequences in the regions they infiltrate. The widespread loss of habitat is perhaps the most serious of these. Kudzu vines, brought from Japan as an attractive plant in the 19th century, are threatening the health of many forests. This plant was widely dispersed throughout the South eastern United States as an erosion control and grazing animal food source. However, the vine quickly grew invasive, and it can now totally overgrow whole woods. As a result, sunlight is unable to reach the trees, thus eradicating the forest. Additionally, the weight of dense vine mats on trees can cause trees to snap and topple over. It's been titled 'the vine that ate the South' because of its capacity to swiftly overgrow and destroy forests.

The hemlock woolly adelgid is an invasive Asian bug that destroys hemlock trees quickly. Up to 80% of hemlock trees have been destroyed in certain sections of the Eastern United States, according to estimates. Many creatures rely on these woods for their survival, and if they are lost, species that rely on them may become extinct.

Invasive species have the potential to extirpate native plants and animals, reduce biodiversity, compete for limited resources with native creatures, and modify environments. This may have massive economic consequences as well as basic environmental changes along the coast and in the Great Lakes. Asian carp imported to the United States compete with local fish for food and space, causing native fish populations to plummet. Biological invasions are one of the most serious ecological problems that endangers native biodiversity. The structure and function of ecosystems throughout the world will be significantly impacted by a predicted rise in the rate of species extinction. While farmers have always fought a battle with weeds in crops, invasion of these and other formerly weed-free lands has increased exponentially in recent decades. Because they often look no different than native plants, non-native plants can become established and cause serious economic and ecological damage before they are detected.

Invaders can change the habitat physically in addition to destroying it. In 1946, 50 beavers were moved from Canada to Tierra del Fuego, an island off the coast of South America, to be killed for their pelts. They've grown in number since then, and currently number in the hundreds of thousands. The trees in the area are not as suited to beaver activity as those in North America, and most of them do not regrow after being gnawed by beavers. Parts of the once-pristine woodlands now appear to have been driven through by a bulldozer. Beaver activity also causes ponds, which flood parts of the forest. Invasive plants flourish in these areas of stagnant water, which disrupt the nutrient cycle in forests.

Other invading species may not destroy habitat, but they can have a significant impact by causing the extinction of indigenous species in huge numbers. In the Everglades, for example, Burmese pythons are top predators. As a result, local animal and bird populations have been destroyed. These critters, capable of eating deer and even alligators, consume almost any animal they come across in the Everglades. The digestive systems of pythons have also been shown to include a number of rare and endangered bird species, raising concerns that they may drive certain species to extinction. Lampreys parasitize native fish in the Great Lake. Because local species have not evolved defences against lampreys, they frequently die from wounds, or the wounds grow infected and lead to death.

Human health can be harmed by invasive organisms. The South American red fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), a notoriously aggressive stinging ant, has been linked to the deaths of over 80 people in the United States. These ants bite numerous times when agitated, delivering venom that can be lethal to certain persons. Apis mellifera, the African honey bee, has also spread to regions of the southern United States, where it is so aggressive and kills so many people and animals each year that it has acquired the appellation Killer Bee. Toxins such as PCBs and PAHs accumulate in the tissues of invasive zebra mussels. Toxins are transferred up the food chain when other creatures hunt on these mussels, and they can end up in animals ingested by humans. Ships' ballast water can potentially carry hazardous microorganisms such as cholera.

Unintentional introductions may represent a greater hazard to the environment and society than intended introductions due to their sheer volume and unexpected nature. Stowaways are easily transferred from one location to another in the ballast water of container ships or the cargo of airlines. According to the Globallast Program, between 3000 and 10000 marine species move around the world with ships' bilge water on any given day.

Invasive species can have tremendous economic implications in addition to these consequences. Zebra mussels can quickly dominate submerged surfaces in the Great Lakes, obstructing water intakes at water treatment facilities and power stations. In the Great Lakes alone, removing this invasive species is predicted to cost $500 million each year. Each year, power providers spend an estimated $1.5 million to control kudzu vines that have grown up along power wires. Invasive species cost the United States an estimated $120 billion per year in control costs and natural resources lost.

What Is Allelopathy and Allelochemicals

Molish postulated allelopathy  as an invasion mechanism for the first time in 1937. Allelopathy is defined as a biochemical connection between inhibition and promotion in plants or microbes. Allelopathy has three key characteristics: first, the plants are the target of interaction; interactions between flora and fauna or between plants and creatures are not included. Second, the interaction material is plant secondary metabolites, which must have an appropriate route of entering the environment, but secondary metabolites have not undergone modifications within plants. Thirdly, allelochemicals are also utilised to control the growth and development of its own or nearby plants.

Allelochemicals, or plant secretions, are chemical compounds that can alter the development, behaviour, and population biology of other living organisms, including chemical substances that exist between plants and between plants and animals. Allelopathy research and application are extremely important in the control of exotic invasive noxious weeds. Many allelochemicals are known, including water soluble organic acids, straight-chain alcohols, aliphatic series, aldehydes, ketones, simple unsaturated lactone, long-chain fatty acids, multi-alkyne, naphthoquinone, anthraquinone acid, quinone compound, simple phenols, benzoic acid and its derivatives, cinnamic acid and its derivatives, coumarin, flavonoids. The most frequent forms are phenolic acids and terpenoid chemicals.

Lantana camara, a native of the Americas, has invaded pastures, forests, tea plantations, and orchards in Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, and other provinces in South China, causing major damage to natural resources and ecosystems. They are also toxic plants at the same time. They will be poisoned if livestock and people consume them irresponsibly. According to the research, Lantana camara has a severe allelopathy that can hinder the growth of nearby plants.

Mikania micrantha is a perennial herbaceous vine native to Central and South America that has spread widely over Southeast Asia, the Pacific, Oceania, and Australia. It swept into Guangdong coastal areas in the late 1980s and early 1990s, spreading at an alarming rate and wreaking havoc on the National Nature Reserve of Ling Ting Island in Guangdong Province. Trees have been withering due to mikania micrantha (also known as 'plant killer,' the major hazardous grass that would destroy crops and forests), and a wide area of arbour and shrub woods has devolved into the underbrush. Mikania micrantha's fast growth and the release of allelochemicals into the environment are linked.

Phoenix eyes, also known as water hyacinth, is a South American plant that was imported to mainland China in the 1930s as animal fodder and aesthetic plants. It is currently frequently planted as a water cleaning plant since its allelochemicals limit the growth of aquatic plants and algae.

Due to its high growth rate, adaptability, economic potential, and other characteristics, Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) was introduced into a wide number of nations, including China, in 1890, and it has since become a significant reproducing tree species in southern China. The ecological concern has become more evident as eucalyptus plantations have grown in popularity. The ecological issues with its artificial forest have been linked to its significant allelopathic effects, according to research. Eucalyptus allelopathy reduces the availability of understory shrubs and herbs, resulting in a fall in biodiversity in forests and a basic community structure, resulting in substantial water losses and soil erosion.

The herbaceous perennial plant Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod, Canada goldenrod) is endemic to North America. It was first brought to China as a flower in the 1970s, after becoming a popular exotic wildflower in Southeast China. Fang Fang and colleagues studied the effect of Solidago canadensis water extract on the germination and growth of pepper, tomato, radish, cabbage, and wheat seeds, concluding that Solidago canadensis has a strong allelopathic effect on the tested crop seed germination, namely strong allelopathy. Zhou Kai demonstrated that Solidago canadensis root aqueous extract and rhizosphere soil extract can prevent the germination of Chinese cabbage seed and radish seed.

Ragweed (Compositae), which originated in North America, was brought to China towards the end of the 1930s and quickly spread throughout the country. It wreaked havoc on agricultural fields (such as marijuana fields, maize fields, soybean fields, vegetable fields, and so on), orchards, nursery gardens pastures, and picturesque tourist areas. Allelochemicals emitted by ragweed have been proven to hinder seed germination and seedling growth in plants near them, according to researchers. In the north-eastern part of China, the congeneric ambrosia trifida L. has expanded widely, releasing allelochemicals into the environment through leaching to improve their competitiveness in nature, which has a negative influence on other plants.

Wedelia is a plant that originated in Africa. They are used as green manure in Southern China. Wedelia grows in high-density, single-species populations in the south. Rensen Zeng and other researchers have verified that Wedelia has allelopathy on surrounding plants via several studies, thus we can conclude that allelopathy is the primary cause of Wedelia's inhibition of neighbouring plant growth and reproduction over large areas. Wedelia trilobata, a tropical American congeneric, arrived in the United States in the 1990s. According to the study, Wedelia trilobata allelopathy has a significant negative impact on rice, peanut, and other crop yields.

Concluding Remarks

Invasive species have caused the extinction or decline of numerous species, and they continue to represent a serious danger to many more. By displacing native and useful species and changing ecosystems, they cause enormous and often irreversible harm to biodiversity around the world. Every species that is taken out of its natural habitat has the potential to spread. Scientific literatures underpin my opinion that invasive species usually has irrevocable effects on natural ecosystems. Biodiversity, the economy, and public health are all negatively impacted by these species. I strongly highlight the point that although the initial effects caused by invasive species may be mild and almost undetectable, as the invasive species population grows, the severity of the effects will rise.

In a nutshell, assessing the effects of invasive species on biodiversity is more difficult than assessing their economic effects. While the costs of preventing, controlling, and mitigating biodiversity impacts may be calculated, the real worth of an extinct species or an ecosystem shift is more difficult to estimate. Furthermore, effects of these species should not be seen in isolation since they are usually enhanced by other environmental disturbances.