Fencing and Indoor Volleyball as Hand-In-Hand Sports

Fencing dates back thousands of years to 1200 BCE where swordsmanship was performed as a form of military training for war, combats between two people and pastime by the Romans, Persians, Greeks, and Germanic tribes (Evangelista, 2017). Throughout the Middle Ages, sword combat became a mastery of skill. As the popularity of sword fighting increased, sword training schools with fencing masters also developed.

Changes to the sword was also made for easier handling and protection of the human body so they were no longer used as weapons. The Italians and French altered the cross-bar of the sword so the bar would not pierce through the protection layer worn by the fighter, this added to the ease of handling but lost some of the strength of the sword (Castello, 1933). By the end of the 16th century, the sword had changed to become lighter and simpler to enhance control and speed. This fencing style was spread and developed across Europe and soon fencing became recognised as a form of art. Schools continued to teach fencing in safe training environments, emphasising strategy and form. It was only in the late 19th century that fencing became an organised sport, using a light sabre in a duel (Evangelista, 2017).

Technology impacted the scoring system of fencing majorly as traditional scoring was done by five individuals giving votes, which led to issues such as cheating. This was when an electronic scoring system was introduced in the late 1800 s. A buzzer was attached to the wall, with a wire wrapped around each fighter’s neck to the handle of their sword. When a hit was made, the blade of the sword would be pressed back into the handle, completing a circuit and activating the buzzer. As technology advanced, wireless systems were developed and fighters wore conductive jackets, masks and cuffs to improve the signal. Lights now appear on the fighter’s mask to signal whether a hit has been successful (Ford, 2016). There are three types of weapons used in fencing, including the sabre, foil and epee.

Competitors must wear the appropriate clothing checked by officials to ensure safety, including fencing pants and a jacket called a lame, face mask, and fencing glove. Fencers compete on a strip of material called a piste that measures 1.5 meters to 2.2 meters wide and 14 meters long and they have to stay on it at all times. In a round, called a bout, one point to given to each fencer when they touch their opponent in an approved target zone with their weapon. The target changes with the different weapons used. Any part of the body counts as a touch in epee fencing, while in sabre fencing only areas above the waist are within the target zone and in foil fencing, only the trunk of the body can be targeted. A fencing match lasts a maximum of nine minutes with a one minute break between each three minutes. The winner is the first to score 15 touches or has the higher touches when the time is up. Whenever a touch is made, a new round begins. If a fencer steps out the boundaries, the opponent is awarded one meter of ground on the restart round. Officials may also award a fencer one touch if the opponent displays unethical behaviour, lack of sportsmanship or attacks with both hands (Lynch, 2017).

Fencers require both physical and mental training to competitively take part in this sport. Physical training for speed, power and balance training can be done through fencing specific exercises and fencing transferrable exercises. Fencing specific exercises develops strength by doing movements and exercises similar to fencing movements, while fencing transferrable exercises focuses on different movements that can be transferred to a movement that is useful in fencing (Rogers, 2017). Lower back and core muscles are important for balance which fencers needs while trying to maintain on the narrow piste. Quadriceps muscles allow fencers to lunge multiple times and stay upright without fatiguing (Schuna, 2017). Mental training such as technique and tactical training are also important in fencing. Lessening the tension in the mind by removing negative thoughts of doubt and fear and calming the mind helps focus and controlled while competing in the sport. It is important for the mind to be focused as fencing requires fast and strategic thinking.

Fencing is predominantly a strength-based sport as it requires explosive, high intensity movements in short periods of time by enduring limited oxygen consumption. This can be increased by the improvement of the anaerobic capacity. When anaerobic fitness improves, lactic acid will not build up as frequently and fast, allowing the body to work longer with more strength. However, there are also aerobic elements in fencing, as endurance is needed to sustain through multiple bouts of anaerobic movement. The repetition of anaerobic activity then accumulates to become an aerobic activity (Dale, 2017).

Important nutritional requirements for fencers include good amounts of carbohydrates and fats to produce energy, and protein to build muscles. Staying hydrated is also important due to excess sweating. Vitamins are also important to regulate the chemical reactions inside the player’s bodies that speed up during physical movements. On average, fencers should eat small meals every three hours and with a balanced diet they do not need to take supplements (Rogers, 2015). Most commonly, fencing injuries faced by players are sprains to the ankles and knees. There are risks of overstressing the joints in these areas resulting in damage to the ligaments (Kermes, 2017).

Fencing has been included in the Olympics Games since the 1896 Games in Athens, being one of the five sports to do so (Fencing: history of fencing at the Olympic games, 2015). There is also an annual World Championships in Fencing that is the second most prominent after the Olympics. In the London 2012 Summer Olympics, a controversy of the sport arose. Where a South Korean fencer, Shin A Lam failed to advance to the final match. She was tied at five points with her opponent and would have been awarded victory on the basis of priority. However, the time was reset from zero to one second as she was allegedly guilty of an infringement. Within that one second that supposedly lasted longer, her opponent scored the winning point, leading to Shin’s lost. The Korean team launched an appeal which they had to pay for while Shim remained on the piste in a pool of tears for around an hour. The final result was that Shin had lost the semi-finals and was to compete for the bronze medal which she also ended up losing (Garrod, 2012).

Indoor volleyball was invented by an American student named William G. Morgan in 1895. Originally known as ‘mintonette’, it was a sport Morgan created to involve people of all age and ability and was designed and inspired by a combination of tennis, basketball, baseball, and handball. At first, Morgan raised a tennis net, 1.98 meters above the ground and used a basketball to toss over the net but found it was too heavy and big. It was only until 1900, where a ball that was light and small enough was designed and a range of tactical and technical functioning of the sport were developed. Until the 1930 s indoor volleyball was seen as a sport for leisure and enjoyment. However, it became more competitive as the years past and the rules of volleyball became more refined and standardised (Volleyball: a brief history, 2015).

Technology has impacted indoor volleyball positively by developing pieces that help players train, help judge a game, and help coaches communicate with the players. Exercise equipment such as the Volleyball Pal was created to enhance muscle toning and performance of a player. A Velcro strap is attached around the player’s waist with an elastic cord that connects to a ball pouch that holds the volleyball. This improves performance and repetitive accuracy of hitting the ball over the net. A boundary line technology was also developed to help a referee judge a match when the human eye misses a point. Personal microphones are also being used in training sessions between the coach and players to communicate position placements and strategies while the game is occurring. However, this is limited to a training tool as it is not yet allowed in tournaments (Technology and volleyball).

An indoor volleyball court is usually 18 by 9 meters. The net in the centre of the court is 2.43 meters from the top in the men’s game and 2.24 meters in the women’s game. There are six players in each team, with two rows of three players. After all players have accurately positioned themselves, the referee will blow a whistle to signal the start of the serve. The player on the back right serves the ball, and a point is gained when the ball lands outside the boundary or hits the group before a player could hit it over the net. The teams rotate positions in a clockwise manner. There is no limit to how many times the ball touches a player as long as it doesn’t hit the ground. There is no time limit to the length of the game, the team with the best out of three sets by being first to score 25 points in each set wins (Silverman, 2017).

In 1946, the initial World Championships was held and soon after in the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo, also saw the introduction of indoor volleyball. There have been a few volleyball scandals involving the volleyball coaches throughout the years. Accusations and evidence of sexual assault have been reported many times. A prevalent example of this is Rick Butler, who was a dominant youth volleyball coach. There were claims of him abusing underage female players who saw him as a chance to receive a scholarship or enter the Olympics. A lifetime ban was put on him by the USA Volleyball (USAV) in 1995 when three women testified against him. However, he was later given an administrative role in the USAV in 2000 and his ban was removed.