Examining the Effects of Parenting Styles on Academic Performance of High School Students

Baldwin, Mclntyre, Hardaway, 2007) defined that parenting style is one of the variables that have been studied extensively in human development. (Gadeyne, Ghesquiere, Onghena, 2004) explained that it is considered an important determinant of several aspects of children’s outcome. The notion have been related to children and adolescent academic achievement (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, Dornbusch, 1991), optimism (Baldwin, Mclntyre, Hardaway, 2007), confidence (Strage Brandt, 1999), motivation (Gonzalez Wolters, 2006), externalizing problem behaviour and attention problems (Gadeyne, Ghesquiere, Onghena, 2004). Parenting style depends on the behaviour and attitude of parents. Parenting style is a psychological construct which represented standard strategies parents use in raising their children. The term is a complex activity that includes many specific behaviors that work individually and collectively to influence the child. Baumrind (1971) identified two major variables based on parenting styles and child outcomes. One of them was the responsiveness of parents to their child’s needs in a supportive, reasonable and nurturing way. Parenting style captures two important elements of parenting: parental demand and parental responsiveness (Maccoby Martin, 1983).

Rodriguez, Donovick, and Crowley, 2009 stated that parenting styles can be beneficial in consideration of complex behaviors and attitudes regarding to child outcomes. (Dawkins, 2006) defined that parenting is a parental patterns which consists of failures, despair, panic, frustrations as well as well-being, peace of mind and happiness. That’s the main reason parents wanted to find an interest and derive considerable and continuing happiness in their activities and relationships with their children. Daniel and Steinberg (2003) described parenting style as 'a combination of parental behaviors and attitudes toward their children that are conveyed to the children and that, as a whole, create an emotional bond in which the parents' behaviors are expressed”. Park Bauer, 2002 defined that parenting style which characterized by warm, acceptance and supportive tend to associated with higher academic performance, in contrast, parenting style such as authoritarian style which involved high level of control and low level of acceptance tend to associated with lower academic performance.

Hoghughi Long, 2004 found in a study that the positive parenting produces a successful and healthy student. A firm and positive sense of self and self – esteem can be enhanced through parenting. Kaisa et al., 2000 stated that the student, who is well cared, would be emotionally resilient, strong and socially competent. These students have the capacity to explore new opportunities. Research shows the association of adolescents' achievement strategies with parenting styles in the family. Findings revealed a significant effect of parenting styles on academic performance.

Kamilah Noordin, 2005 illustrated that parents are the most important examples and reference materials for children. Smith, 2007 described that interacting with children and parents begin to know themselves and gain experience as a preparation for the challenges in future life. The experience of interacting with parents and family also determines the behavior and attitude of children towards society and others. The role of parents to enhance children's potential can be realized through the concept of effective parenting styles (Azizi Jaafar, 2006).

Wei, 2008 stated that the aim of parenting styles is to shape the character of the children so that the behavior shown is appropriate to the needs of parents, families and communities. Parents play an important role in shaping adolescents personality, this is because the inappropriate interaction will affect the adolescents in developing a good personality.

Baumrind (1967) conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. Using, parental interviews, naturalistic observation and other research methods, he revealed four important directions of parenting styles. These styles are: Authoritative Parenting Style which can be described as highest in all of the styles mentioned above, that is kind, nurturance and disciplinary strategies, control, and communication styles and expectations of maturity. Permissive Parenting Style is high in nurturance and kindness but low in terms of communication style, discipline strategies, and expectations of maturity and control.

Baldwin, Mclntyre, Hardaway, 2007 said that parenting style is one of the variables that have been observed broadly in human development. Gadeyne, Ghesquiere, Onghena, 2004 stated that parenting styles referred as an important part of several aspects of children’s outcome. The term has been belonged to children and adolescent academic performance, enthusiasm, confidence, motivation, manifest problem behavior and attention problems. Brown Iyengar, 2008 explained that it is broadly admitted that parenting style has an impact on self-esteem, self-efficacy, and identity development, which are related with academic performance. Further, the progress in children’s performance is effected by the decision that is made by both parents and their children to cooperate or confront each other.

Brown Iyengar, 2008 explained that when parents are neglectful, problem behavior and academic disengagement are generated. Skowron, 2005) found in his study that mothers who were better to modulate emotion and ability to both autonomy and intimacy had children who had higher scores for mathematical and verbal achievement. Phillipson, 2007 described that parents are seen to communicate their characteristics or explanations for their children’s achievement in terms of day-to-day interactions and behavior with their children. Therefore, parents are influenced by their children’s academic achievement, and children’s achievement is, in turn, influenced by their parents. Brown Iyengar, 2008 identified that the foundation for academic achievement and parenting style is formed by the attitudes and belief system in parents and their children. Pastorelli et al. 2001 illustrated that children with authoritarian parents perceived themselves as less efficacious for self-directed learning. Baumrind, 2012 stated taht children are enhanced by authoritative parents and show higher social development academic, competence, self-perception, and mental health compared to children with authoritarian and permissive parents.

Baumrind (1967) conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. Using naturalistic observation, parental interviews and other research methods, he identified four important dimensions of parenting. These are disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, expectations of maturity and control. Based on these dimensions, Baumrind came up with the concept of parenting styles and suggested that the majority of parents display one of three qualitatively different parenting styles (Cherry, 2012). These are: Authoritative Parenting Style which is highest in all of the dimensions mentioned above, that is disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control; and Authoritarian Parenting Style which is high in disciplinary strategies and expectations of maturity and control but low in warmth and nurturance and communication styles; Permissive Parenting Style which is high in warmth and nurturance but low in terms of disciplinary strategies, communication styles, and expectations of control and maturity.

The relevance of these styles and practices in the socialisation and developmental outcomes of children cannot be overemphasized. This is because, parents across cultures have unique socialization goals, such as helping their child become an autonomous, self-reliant individual or a socially interdependent individual. The socialization goals shape parents’ everyday interactions and parenting styles with their children. Parents in Western cultures endorse autonomous socialization goals that focus on helping their children become independent, competitive, and self-expressive, while parents in Asian cultures emphasize obedience, respect, and social interdependence (Keller Otto, 2009; Barnhart et. al, 2013). That is, parents are more likely to adopt parenting styles and practices that are in sync with their socialization goals and societal values. Barnhart et al. (2013) observed that authoritative parenting style which places a high emphasis on development of autonomy in children is consistent with the socialization goals of Western parents.

Milevsky, Schlechter, Klem, and Kehl (2008) examined patterns of maternal and paternal parenting styles among parents of adolescents, and explored adolescent well-being as a function of parenting style. Parenting styles were assessed for maternal and paternal styles separately using the acceptance/involvement and the strictness. Authoritative Parenting Style: Baumrind, 1991; Abesha, 2012 explained that authoritative parenting is a parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness. Authoritative parents are responsive to the child’s emotional needs while having high standards. They set limits and are very consistent in enforcing boundaries. This type of parenting style consists of a constellation of parental characteristics of high standards, such as high emotional attachment and support to children, encouragement of a two-way communication between parents and children, and consistent implementation of the rules established by parents.

They consistently monitor conduct and use non-punitive method or discipline when rules are violated. Socially responsible mature behaviour is expected and reinforced. Authoritative parents are also warm and supportive. They encourage and validate the child’s individual point of view, and recognize the rights of both parents and children”. Authoritative parenting style therefore creates warm, loving and mutual understanding in the family and foster stable children’s behaviour and personality (Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, Ritter, 1997; Talib, 2011; Hong Hong, 2012). Tiller, Garrison, Block, Cramer Tiller, 2003 stated that this democratic approach acknowledges the child’s need for both discipline and individuality that promoting an open relationship where problems can be discussed and resolved together as a team. Steinberg, Eisengart, Cauffman, 2006 identified that adolescents with authoritative parents reported higher grades in school performance than adolescents with neglectful parents, and demonstrated stronger school orientation, school engagement, and bonding with teachers than adolescents with neglectful parents.

Grobman, 2003; Seid Mikre, 2008 defined that the authoritative parents control the activities of the children in a logical and reasonable way. These parent are demanding and accepting, they appreciate oral discussions, explain the children the logic behind their plans, and solicits their objections when they disagree .Bersg, 2011; Zupancic, Podlesek, Kavcic, 2004 illustrated that authoritative parents pay attention to children’s compliance and set standard rules while providing autonomy to children. They acknowledge their kids' perspective, provide them freedom in choice making and empower their children’s' opinion in family matter. This style is considered perfect for all family units regardless of the ethnicity contrasts. Authoritarian Parenting Style

Kang Moore, 2011; Hong, 2012 explained that authoritarian parenting follows a rather dictatorial style involving the highest degree of control on children and very low levels of warmth. Parents who adopt such styles expect strong obedience from their children and favor punitive discipline in response to acts of rebellion. Areepattamannil, 2010; Hong, 2012 identified that authoritarian parents are usually found setting strict rules to abide by and monitoring their child’s time as well as their activities during the day and night. Moreover, the use of this authoritarian style precludes effective discussion, of any sort, between parents and children, which places more pressure on the children than any other parenting style.

Talib et al. (2011) explained that parents with this type of parenting style as highly demanding an unresponsive. These parents attempt to mold and control the behavior and attitudes of their children according to a set of standards. They tend to emphasize obedience, respect for authority, and order. Berg, 2011 stated that authoritarian parents also discourage verbal give-and-take with children, expecting rules to be followed without further explanation. These parents oblige compliance and set elevated requirements. They focus on success aspects and love is conditional with achievement. They are less nurturing than the other two styles of parenting.

Abesha (2012) studied that authoritarian style of parenting is marked by parental behaviours that are highly restrictive and very demanding. It is high in control and maturity demands, but low in nurturance and bidirectional communication between parents and children. Authoritarian parents constrain their children’s independence and they want their children to follow strict parental rules and orders without any question by threatening severe punishment if children violate these rules and orders.

Karavalis, 2003 observed that in this authoritarian parenting style, children are expected to follow strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, 'Because I said so.' These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to their children. In addition, these parents are usually obedience and status oriented, and they always expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation.

Zupancic et al., 2004 explained that authoritarian parents exhibit unfriendly attitude with their children and demand them to follow decisions and rules without any argument. Authoritarian parents restrain children’s self-expression and freedom desires, and use power-assertive techniques (commands, love withdrawal, threats and physical force) to achieve what they want from their children. Huver, Otten, Vries Engels, 2010 said that an authoritarian parenting style is under the dimensions of demandingness which it involve parental, obedience, conformity ,controls and the need to respect parental authority. Permissive Parenting Style Kang &Moore, 2011 stated that permissive parenting is characterized by low expectations of control and maturity, and disciplinary strategies over children, aiming for high levels of warmth. The parents are non-restrictive and exhibit high levels of responsiveness. Unlike authoritarian parents, punishment is very rarely used in permissive homes and children are commonly given greater opportunity to make their own decisions in life (Kang &Moore, 2011).

Verenikina, Vialle Lysaght, 2011 identified that being more responsive than demanding, parents of this style have relatively low expectations for their children, setting very few rules. They often take a very casual and easy-going approach toward their children, opening up conversations and subsequently developing warmer relationships between them. Supervision and bi-directional communication between parents and children are low.

Zupancic et al., 2004 explained that permissive parents follow a tolerant approach for the sake of children’s socialization. These parents mostly ignore misconduct displayed by children. These parents does not maintain control over child’s conduct, but they exhibit a tolerant and supportive attitude.

Rossman Rea, 2005 described that permissive parents allow their children to experience a high level of freedom and do not impose rules and regulation to restrain their practices, unless physical harm is expected. Berg, 2011 defined that permissive parents demand little or almost nothing from their children and maintain a friendly interrelation.

In 2011 Nancy identified that parent of permissive parenting style do not respond and control toward their children. These parents are preoccupied with their own problems without discharging the responsibilities as parents. Children who are raised by permissive parenting style are not able to control themselves, impulsive and less self-reliant. However, they are happier and speedy recovery from a stress or crisis situation as compared with children who grew up with authoritarian.