Research on the Formation of the Animal Intelligence

Intelligence is derived from the Latin word 'intelligere' meaning to understand. To truly understand something information is collected either consciously or unconsciously then organised and once basic comprehension of the subject is formed, knowledge or skills learnt can be applied to everyday scenarios. (Wiske. 1998) According to todays understanding on the formation of intelligence animal and human behaviour combines emotional and cognitive processes; both can be investigated in detail, and separately studied (Vernon 1979) the environment is a prime factor of influence also. (Skinner 1938). When tackling such a complex area of human psychology like intelligence both biological and behaviourist researchers look at it from a reductionist standpoint. Following the law of parsimony - the less assumptions a theory makes the more plausible it is - they reduce intelligence down to its fundamental elements; from a biological view intelligence is determined by individuals heredity and biological structure. Behaviourism believes intelligent behaviour is formed from prior learning about our environment - a stimulus and response relationship. Intelligent behaviour is a sequence of stimulus and response chains(Terrace 2005). By reducing such intricate concepts using a reductionist view investigators are able to state a set of variables that can be tested to identify a relationship of cause and effect for intellect. However by reducing such a vast idea like intelligence important factors of its formation could be missed. Behaviourism was first constructed by John B. Watson, he authored the paper 'Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It' (1913), exploring the theory that behavioural responses are affected by environmental stimuli. Its is a scientific approach that collects data on observable behaviours. Watson negates the idea of consciousness; the general understanding of intelligent behaviours in both animals and humans is 'considered on the same plane'(Watson. 1913 p. 253) and to study any internal cognitive functions such as emotion or thought processes would be too subjective. Two central concepts of behaviourism are classical and operant conditioning used to achieve targeted behaviours. Classical conditioning involves reflexive responses; an automatic unconditioned response(UCR) to a unconditioned stimulus(UCS) which becomes associated with a conditioned stimulus(CS).

Operant conditioning was initial described by Skinner (1953) who suggests intelligent behaviours are developed through reinforcement. For a conditioned response to occur there must be a voluntary change in behaviour that is then rewarded or punished; an association between a voluntary action and a positive or negative consequence is learnt strengthening intelligent behaviours (Lund 2010). A limitation of conditioning is the majority of research has been through laboratory experiments reducing the ecological validity of results; they cannot be generalised to real-life. (Jackson, 2010) In contrast to behaviourism a biological psychologist emphasizes the role of nature over nurture. Darwin's (1859) theory of natural selection puts forward the idea- that characteristics which increases an animal's likelihood of reproduction and survival will be encoded into their genetic material. Therefore if intelligence is beneficial to survival those with a higher level of intelligence will adapt to changing environments and are more likely to survive; transferring intelligent DNA to their offspring.

This happens over generations of a species and is seen as biological 'the internal state shall be continually adjusted to the external order'(Spencer. 1855). Biological intelligence also examines the structure and functioning of the brain to understand how different areas combine together to form skills such as self recognition, learning or memory ; with the addition of any intelligent hereditary traits and the suggestion that these abilities develop into forms of intelligence. In less intellectual species behaviour is more spontaneously determined by the biological make up of the animal the neural and biochemical processes react to outside stimulation and the response becomes conditioned. Within the central nervous system of a higher level species, activity will be greater when formulating a response to an environmental stimulant this activity can be measured since complex problem solving in humans and other high level species requires some form of internal thought process (Byrne 1995) the brain regions used during this process can be highlighted using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An indication of intelligence from a behaviourist view is self recognition the ability to know one's self; only 8 species on the planet demonstrate this quality. The mark test (Gallup 1970) is used to identify this capability – investigating the mark by touching it or attempting to remove it suggests the mark is unusual to the animal's normal perception of itself; evidence of self recognition. The red spot technique was used to provide supporting evidence of self awareness in magpies (Prior. 2008). Although it has been challenging to replicate the results possibly because performing such an experiment brings about inherent difficulties (Bard 1994).

Furthermore, Heyes (1994) explains that this is not substantial evidence to say animals are self aware in the same way as humans. Animals must be aware of themselves in some way as they demonstrate spatial awareness – understanding where oneself is placed in relation to the surrounding space and obstacles. Spatial awareness is a form of perception – information that is gathered and organised from sensory inputs. Self-recognition may be explained in a similar way. The animal is gathering sensory information and the red spot can be discriminated against. Humans are complex social creatures the contribution of Social Learning Theory by Bandura (1969) highlights the significance of observation imitation and modelling behaviours of others. By imitating an action information is learnt about how and when to perform such a behaviour; this knowledge can then be used in other situations as guide of appropriate conduct - an intellectual response to new a situation. Social learning from a behaviourist view is a process of vicarious reinforcement; behaviour will be copied if the animal watching see's another animal benefiting from the action. One studied (Kawai. 1965) observed Macaque monkeys in their natural environment; the behaviour demonstrated could be seen as a intelligent trait as it could be beneficial to their survival as a species. The salt in the sea water is a antibacterial agent; washing the potatoes first could make them safer for the Macaques to eat.

Contrastingly, Nagell et al (1993) proposes animals are observing the environmental features being utilised and the animal explores this themselves through trial and error. On the other hand biologist would attribute this to the use of internal functions. Social learning is a form of phenotypic plasticity – the ability to change their genetic phenotype in response to the environment (Scheiner 1993). Allowing the organism to adapt to varying conditions in real-time. Conditioned learning and learning by trial and error put an organism in a position of potential risk it would be more effective to discover these behaviours from social learning, by imitating others, individuals can acquire intelligent behaviours without being exposed to any negative effects associated with individual learning (Zentall, & Galef. 2013). The structure of brain for individual learning is already in place, using the concept of phenotypic plasticity animals are just using this structure to learn in a different way, concentrating on others rather then the environment.

Living in groups is a successful survival technique providing protection from predators and assistance when hunting, although social living creates conflict and rivalry within a group. It is more likely to be successful if the species is intelligent and has theory of mind – an ability to view the world from another's perspective. This also allows for Machiavellian intelligence or social manipulation using deception that is advantageous to the animal. Biologists suggests the brains cognitive abilities developed learning strategies or memes in response to social competition to accomplish social goals and increase the likelihood of reproduction with desired mates (Gavrilets & Vose. 2006).

On the contrary to this, early research explains that primates are not able to deliberately be deceptive. One study (Woodruff & Premack 1979) claimed the primates studied learnt to deceive the investigators through conditioning and the use of a positive reinforcement if so, this would not be an example of Machiavellian intelligence. To conclude intelligence can be very difficult to measure accurately both biological and behaviourist psychologists reduced it down to its smallest constituents in order to do this. Although it may be limiting to do so ; factors that determine the initial development of intelligence may be overlooked. Behaviourism dismisses the subconscious and biological workings of the brain whereas biological perspectives focuses solely on the internal system and negates any external or environmental factors that may determine intelligence. Defining intelligence as fundamental nature or nurture could curb our future understanding and progression of the subject. Instead exploring the idea that our genetic material and the environmental surroundings interact cohesively to form intelligence could be beneficial. Further research exploring environmental effects on our neural and biochemical processes, and the concept of biological processes contributing to the explanation of self recognition, social learning and Machiavellian intelligence could be fundamentally in the quest of understanding where intelligence derives from.