Mesopotamian Legacy: Contributions to Human Civilization

Introduction

Ancient Mesopotamia was a region in southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefited from the temperature and geology of the area to host the beginnings of human civilization. Throughout history, several significant innovations have shaped the world, including the concept of time, mathematics, the wheel, sailboats, maps, and writing. Mesopotamia is also characterized by a shifting succession of ruling bodies from various locations and towns that acquired authority over thousands of years. Mesopotamia is found in what is now known as the Middle East, which encompasses sections of southwest Asia as well as the areas around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent, which is also known as the 'Cradle of Civilization' because of the numerous inventions that developed from the region's early communities, which are among the world's oldest known human civilizations. The name 'Mesopotamia' comes from the Greek words 'meso,' which means 'between' or 'in the middle of,' and 'potamos,' which means 'river,' and refers to the wealthy lowlands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which are now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syria. Humans initially arrived in Mesopotamia during the Paleolithic age. By 14,000 B.C., people in the area were living in small communities with circular houses. During the domestication of animals and the agricultural sector, most notably irrigation technologies that took use of the vicinity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, these homes established farming villages 5,000 years later. The dominating Ubaid civilization, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it, was responsible for agricultural advancement. During the domestication of animals and the agricultural sector, most notably irrigation technologies that took use of the vicinity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, these homes established farming villages 5,000 years later. The dominating Ubaid civilization, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it, was responsible for agricultural advancement.

Sumerian Civilization

These dispersed agrarian villages began in the northern section of ancient Mesopotamia and migrated south, growing for thousands of years until establishing what contemporary humans would identify as cities, which were regarded as Sumerian creations. The first of these cities, Uruk, was founded in approximately 3200 B.C. It was a mud-brick city with public art, massive columns, and temples, built on the wealth provided by commerce and conquest. It had a population of around 50,000 people at its height. Sumerians invented the oldest type of written language, cuneiform, which they used to keep meticulous clerical records. Mesopotamia was solidly under the Sumerian people's power by 3000 B.C. Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish, and Ur were among the dispersed city-states of Sumer. Etana of Kish is recorded as the first monarch of a unified Sumer. Etana, like many of the monarchs named in the Sumerian King List, established circa 2100 B.C., is uncertain whether he ever lived. All of these characters appear in Sumerian mythology. Meskiaggasher, the monarch of the city-state Uruk, came after Etana. Around 2750 B.C., a warrior called Lugalbanda took authority. Sumer was an ancient civilization that thrived between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Fertile Crescent's Mesopotamia region. Well-known for Sumerians are regarded as the founders of civilization as we know it today, thanks to their advances in language, administration, building, and other areas. Before the Babylonians acquired control of the region around 2004 B.C., they ruled for less than 2,000 years. Humans originally came in Sumer between 4500 and 4000 B.C., however, some settlers may have come earlier. The Ubaid people were famous for making significant contributions to the development of civilization, including farming and cattle rearing, weaving textiles, working with carpentry and ceramics, and even drinking beer. Ubaid rural settlements were surrounded by villages and cities. The Sumerians had established control of the region by 3000 B.C. Their civilization was made up of a collection of city-states, including Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, Ur, and Uruk, the first genuine metropolis. The city had a population of between 40,000 and 80,000 people living between its six miles of defensive walls during its height of about 2800 BC, giving it a candidate for the title of the world's biggest metropolis. Sumer's city-states were encircled by walls, with villages settling close beyond and distinguishing themselves by the worship of local deities. The Sumerian language is the earliest recorded language. Around 3100 B.C., it first appears in archaeological records. For the next thousand years, Mesopotamia was ruled by them. Around the year 2000 B.C., Akkadian mostly superseded it. However, it survived as a written language in the form of cuneiform for another 2,000 years. Cuneiform, which is employed on pictographic tablets, dates back to 4000 B.C., although it was eventually transformed into Akkadian and spread outside Mesopotamia beginning in 3000 B.C. Writing is one of the Sumerians' most important cultural achievements, allowing kings to preserve accurate records all the way down to farmers and ranchers. The first written laws were created about 2400 B.C. The Code of Er-Nammu was recorded on tablets in the city of Ebla. Although only fragments of these manuscripts remain, the Sumerians were thought to have a large body of literary works.

Gilgamesh

Lugalbanda's son is thought to be Gilgamesh, the fabled subject of the Gilgamesh Epic. Gilgamesh is said to have been born about 2700 B.C. at Uruk. The Epic of Gilgamesh is said to be the first great work of literature and the source of several of the Bible's legends. Gilgamesh embarks on a trip with a buddy to the Cedar Forest, which in Mesopotamian mythology is known as the Land of the Gods. When Gilgamesh's buddy is killed, he embarks on a journey to uncover the secret of endless life, only to discover that 'life, which you seek, you will never find,' since 'when the gods created man, they let death be his part, and life was restrained in their own hands.' In 2334 B.C., Monarch Lugalzagesi was the last king of Sumer, a Semitic nation, succumbed to Sargon of Akkad. They were partners for a time, conquering Kish jointly, but Lugalzagesi's mercenary Akkadian army remained faithful to Sargon in the end. The first forms of written literature, like the wheel, towns, and legal codes, appear to have arisen in ancient Mesopotamia. Around 3400 B.C., the Sumerian civilization developed writing when they began writing on clay tablets in a style known as cuneiform. Sumerian scribes were also copying down essays, hymns, poetry, and myths by the third millennium B.C. Their texts mostly consisted of economic and administrative papers, but by the third millennium B.C., they were also copying down essays, hymns, poetry, and myths. The 'Kesh Temple Hymn' and the 'Instructions of Shuruppak,' both of which date from circa 2500 B.C., are two of their earliest known literary works. The first is an ancient ode to the Kesh temple and the gods that lived there, while the second is a piece of 'wisdom literature' in the form of wise instruction allegedly passed down from Sumerian monarch Shuruppak to his son Ziusudra. One of Shuruppak's proverbs advises the kid not to 'pass judgment while you drink beer,' while another advises that 'a loving heart keeps a family together; a cruel heart ruins a family.' Although Shuruppak's fatherly wisdom is one of the oldest examples of recorded literature, the 'Epic of Gilgamesh,' a mythological epic that originally appeared in the third millennium B.C., is arguably history's oldest known fictional narrative. The action-packed story revolves around Gilgamesh, a Sumerian ruler who is characterized as one-third man and two-thirds deity. He travels on a conventional hero's journey, slaying monsters, rubbing shoulders with gods, and searching for the key to immortality over the course of twelve clay tablets, all with predictable sad outcomes. The Gilgamesh Epic began as a collection of Sumerian poetry and stories going back to the third millennium BC. The earliest form dates back to 2100 B.C., while the most full version was recorded in the 12th century B.C. Babylonians were the ones who built it. After 600 B.C., the narrative was lost to history, and it wasn't until the mid-nineteenth century that archaeologists discovered a copy in Mosul, Iraq. Scholars have praised it since then. As a cornerstone work of global literature, the 4,000-year-old epic. Their aptitude for engineering and architecture both reflect the depth of their mathematical knowledge. The Sumerians are credited with inventing the present timekeeping system, which includes Mass-Produced Pottery, Writing, Hydraulic Engineering, The Chariot, The Plow, Textile Mills, Mass-Produced Bricks, Metallurgy, and Mathematics.

Akkadian Empire

The Akkadian Empire nobody knows where Akkad was or how it got its name. It is unclear how it came to importance or how it fell from significance; nonetheless, it was once the capital of the Akkadian Empire, which controlled over a huge swath of ancient Mesopotamia. Akkad (also known as Agade) was a city on the Euphrates River's western bank, likely between Sippar and Kish (or, perhaps, between Mari and Babylon or along the Euphrates). According to tradition, it was erected by King Sargon the Great (r. 2334-2279 BCE), who united Mesopotamia under his Akkadian Empire and set the precedent for future Mesopotamian administration. Sargon (or his scribes) claimed that the Akkadian Empire reached from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus, passing into modern-day Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, Syria (perhaps Lebanon), and the lower portion of Asia Minor (there is also a claim it stretched as far as Crete in the Aegean). Whereas the scale and scope of Sargon the Great's dominion in Akkad are debatable, there is little question that he established the world's first multinational empire. The Akkadian Empire was the first to control all of Mesopotamia. From 2300 BC to 2100 BC, it lasted around 200 years. The Akkadians resided in northern Mesopotamia and the Sumerians dwelt in southern Mesopotamia. They were governed and lived in the same civilization as the Sumerians, but they spoke a different language. Individual city-states made up the government. Each city had its own king who was in charge of the city and the surrounding territory. Initially, these city-states were not connected, and they frequently fought one another. The Akkadian monarchs gradually realized the benefits of combining several of their towns under a single country. They started forming alliances and cooperating.

Sargon the Great ascended to prominence around 2300 BC. He founded Akkad, which he named after himself. When Uruk, a great Sumerian city, invaded his city, he fought back and finally defeated it. He then unified northern and southern Mesopotamia under a single king after conquering all of the Sumerian city-states. The Empire Grows Over the following two hundred years, the Akkadian Empire became even larger. To the east, they invaded and conquered the Elamites. They relocated to Oman in the south. They even traveled as far west as Syria and the Mediterranean Sea. Naram-Sin was one of Akkad's famous rulers. He was Sargon the Great's grandson. For more than 50 years, Naram- Sin reigned. He put down rebellions and strengthened the empire. The Akkadian Empire was at its pinnacle during his rule. The Sumerian city of Ur came to dominance again around 2100 BC, defeating the Sumerian metropolis of Akkad. The Empire was remained unified, despite the fact that it was now controlled by a Sumerian ruler. The empire weakened over time, and the Amorites finally invaded it in approximately 2000 BC. Many people in Mesopotamia spoke two languages at the time: Akkadian and Sumerian. Between the major cities, numerous nice highways were created. They even established a government-run mail service. When Naram-Sin attacked Nippur and demolished the temple, the Sumerians believed the Akkadian Empire crumbled due to a curse laid on them. The monarchs kept their authority by putting their sons in charge of the principal cities. Their daughters were likewise designated high priestesses of the principal gods. The first dynasty was established by Sargon. He devised the concept of a man's son inheriting his kingdom. Sargon claimed to be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a lowly gardener who was also a hierodule, or priestess of Ishtar or Inanna. His mother was allegedly a 'entu' priestess, according to some subsequent claims (high priestess). Sargon began his career as a cupbearer for King Ur-Zababa of Kish before becoming a gardener, which allowed him access to a well-trained workforce that may have also acted as his first warriors. Sargon was anointed king and launched a career of foreign invasion after displacing Ur-Zababa. On four separate wars, he attacked Syria and Canaan, spending three years subduing the lands of 'the west' in order to unify them with Mesopotamia 'into a united empire.' Sargon's dominion stretched westward to the Mediterranean Sea and maybe Cyprus (Kaptara), northward to the highlands, eastward across Elam, and southward to Magan (Oman), an area over which he reportedly reigned for 56 years, however only four 'year names' exist. He replaced the kings with Akkadian nobles. The trade stretched from Anatolia's silver mines to Afghanistan's lapis lazuli mines, and from Lebanon's cedars to Magan's copper. The rain-fed agricultural system of northern Mesopotamia (Assyria) was the empire's breadbasket, and a line of fortifications was erected to oversee imperial wheat output. Sargon paid great homage to the Sumerian gods throughout his long life, notably Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, Kish's warrior deity. He referred to himself as 'Anu's anointed priest' and 'Enlil's renowned ensi.' Even in his old age, Sargon was able to crush his foes. Rimush (2278–2270 BCE), who was slain by his own courtiers, and Manishtushu (2269–2255 BCE), who reigned for 15 years, both had difficulties. He, too, was most likely slain as part of a royal plot.

Within 180 years of its establishment, the Akkadian Empire fell apart in 2154 BCE. The collapse ushered in a period of regional decline known as the Dark Age, which lasted until the establishment of Ur's Third Dynasty in 2112 BCE. The empire had collapsed severely by the time of Naram-son, Sin's Shar-kali-sharri (2217-2193 BCE). Between 2192 BC and 2168 BCE, there was a period of anarchy. Shu-Durul (2168-) may have reestablished some consolidated power. 2154 BCE, but he was unable to prevent the empire from falling completely due to a barbarian invasion from the Zagros Mountains known as the Gutians. The Gutian period is poorly understood, as is the length of time it lasted. According to cuneiform sources, the Gutians' administration had no regard for agriculture, written records, or public safety; they allegedly let all farm animals to roam Mesopotamia at will, resulting in famine and skyrocketing grain prices. During the reign of Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (2112-2095 BCE), the Gutians were expelled from Mesopotamia. Drought in the Upper Country caused the collapse of rain-fed agriculture, resulting in the loss of agrarian subsidies that had kept the Akkadian Empire afloat in southern Mesopotamia. Pastoralists and farmers have become more antagonistic. Attempts to limit water availability resulted in greater political instability, while serious depopulation occurred in the meanwhile. The Akkadian people formed into two main Akkadian-speaking countries after the fall of the Akkadian Empire: Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south a few centuries later.

Conclusion

In conclusion, ancient Mesopotamia, located in the Tigris and Euphrates river systems, was the birthplace of human civilization. Its fertile soil, geographic location, and climate were instrumental in the growth and development of civilization. The region was characterized by a succession of ruling bodies, and many significant innovations were developed in the area, including the concept of time, mathematics, the wheel, sailboats, maps, and writing. The Sumerians, one of the early civilizations in Mesopotamia, invented the oldest type of written language, cuneiform, and established the first genuine metropolis, Uruk. The region's development was largely due to advancements in agriculture and irrigation technologies, and the Ubaid civilization played a significant role in this. Mesopotamia's legacy as the cradle of civilization continues to shape the world today.