Infant Development: Biological, Cognitive, and Social Developmental Changes

Many new parents hear the phrase the “terrible twos” and fear the worst. The “terrible twos” refers to a two-year-old infant’s development that is associated with disobedient behaviour. These behaviours are due to normal biological, cognitive, and social developmental changes. Parents often view these defiant behaviours as difficult to handle because their child’s actions and moods are constantly fluctuating. Understanding developmental changes may help parents view their infant’s defiant behaviours from a different outlook. Therefore, these essential changes in their infant’s development may help parents see them as more than “terrible”.

Biological Developmental Changes

Biological development focuses on physiological and structural changes that occur in the body. Around aged two, motor skills and brain development increase significantly. Motor development includes fine motor skills and gross motor skills. For example, fine motor skills involve coordination of small muscles such as muscles that move the fingers (Lightfoot, 2018). Fine motor abilities that emerge include drinking from a straw, opening cupboards and boxes, feeding oneself with a spoon, and building towers of 3-4 blocks (Lightfoot, 2018). Moreover, gross motor skills involve coordination of larger muscles of the body (Lightfoot, 2018). Gross motor abilities that emerge are running, standing on tiptoes, and beginning to ride a tricycle (Lightfoot, 2018). (Veldman et al, 2019) examined the association between cognitive development and gross motor skills in toddlers using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Baley-III) tests. The researchers used a cross-sectional research design to determine that there was a positive association between locomotion and object manipulation. Moreover, rapid structural changes in brain development affects a two-year-old’s moods, thoughts, and behaviours. For example, formation of neuronal circuitry emerges (Majken et al, 2017).

Integration of neuronal brain circuitry occurs as a result of myelination; that is, the process which enables nerve impulses to increase speed (Majken et al, 2017). Thus, a new potential for interaction between thoughts and emotions emerge due to neurons linking the prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes to the brain stem (Lightfoot, 2018). (Majken et al, 2017) investigated neocortical development in the brain of infants from birth to three years old. The study investigated neocortical development using design-based stereological methods. The study concluded that there was a significant increase in neuronal interconnectivity which provides support to the axons contained within the central nervous system. The negative aspects of biological competencies such as the ability to run may increase the infant’s likelihood to engage in dangerous activities or situations. For example, the child may run into the street in front of a car. The emergence of neuronal circuitry formation may cause increased difficulty for parents to interpret their child’s emotions. Thus, temper tantrums may occur as an emotional response to unmet needs and inability of emotional expression.

Moreover, the positive aspects such as advances in motor skill development increase opportunities to communicate with others (Lightfoot, 2018). Fine motor skill abilities increase independence. For example, the infant is able to perform tasks on their own such as writing and dressing. Gross motor skill abilities such as running enables the infant to perform future complex activities such as playing hockey with a team (Hoffmann et al, 2011). Likewise, increased synchrony of neurons permits increased problem-solving abilities and voluntary behaviour control (Lightfoot, 2018). Voluntary behaviour control increases the infant’s ability to regulate themselves. Thus, permitting the child to refrain from reaching for the first attractive object they see (Lightfoot, 2018).

Cognitive Developmental Changes

Cognitive development refers to changes in intellectual capacities such as thoughts, memory, language acquisition, and information processing. Around the age of two, cognitive development is primarily limited to the emergence of sensorimotor intelligence; that is, the ability to understand the world through their own actions (Lightfoot, 2018). Egocentrism, symbolic representation, and pretend play emerge around aged two. Egocentrism refers to the infant’s inability to view the world from others’ perspectives and assumes others feel the same way as they do (Lightfoot, 2018). For example, if the child prefers oranges over apples, they assume others prefer oranges too. Moreover, symbolic representation is the ability to represent experiences and base actions on mental symbols, images, and words (Lightfoot, 2018). Representation emerges into pretend play which involves the child’s ability to use familiar objects to represent another object (Lightfoot, 2018). For example, the child may pretend that their toy banana is a telephone and will “dial” the banana. Thus, representing that they are speaking to someone on the other end. (Cole et al, 1985) investigated developmental changes that occur during pretend play and its relationship to receptive vocabulary, and egocentrism using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). The study concluded that receptive vocabulary correlated only with pretend play and egocentrism displayed a negative correlation with pretend play patterns. Furthermore, (Hoffmann et al, 2011) investigated the relationship between imaginative play and creativity using the Affect in Play Scale (APS). The researchers investigated the relationship in sixty-one females in kindergarten though fourth grade. The study concluded that imaginative play correlated to creativity as measured by storytelling and divergent thinking. Furthermore, the negative aspects of cognitive competencies such as egocentrism will cause difficulty in the ability to share with others.

As a result, the infant may engage in temper tantrums due to frustration from lack of understanding that sharing is not a bad thing. The emergence of symbolic representation and pretend play may be difficult for parents to differentiate when their child is being imaginative or not. For example, a parent may hear their child screaming in their room, only to find out their child is pretending their doll is being rescued by another doll. Moreover, the positive aspects of cognitive changes such as egocentrism may enable the infant to sympathize with others. For example, the child might offer someone their favourite stuffed animal to comfort them. Thus, the child feels that since their stuffed animal comforts them, they assume that others will feel comforted too. Similarly, symbolic representation facilitates the ability to solve problems systematically and engage in their true mental actions. Likewise, pretend play fosters creativity, concept formation, and increases development of social skills (Lightfoot, 2018).

Social Developmental Changes

Social changes enable infants to draw contact into the lives of others and with their own knowledge, desires, and values. Around aged two, an infant’s social changes become increasingly self-directed. They begin to develop independence, self-awareness, and a sense of autonomy versus shame and doubt (Lightfoot, 2018). Self-directed behaviour enables children to begin describing their own actions. For example, when a child is building a tower of blocks and utters, “Uh-oh!” when the blocks fall down. Thus, the infant realizes the blocks fell down due to their actions. Greater independence enables the infant to seek less proximity with the caregiver. Moreover, the emergence of self-awareness gives rises to secondary emotions related to self-consciousness (Lightfoot, 2018). For example, the ability to feel embarrassment, shame, and guilt. The emergence of autonomy versus shame and doubt allows infants to develop a sense of competency or not in order to complete tasks (Lightfoot, 2018). The infant’s emerging social changes are significantly shaped by their environment and nature of early interactions.

Furthermore, the negative aspects of social competencies such as independence, may result in the infant taking increased risks and engaging in potentially dangerous situations. Likewise, the emergence of self-awareness may be problematic because it is an inflated self-esteem that does not match reality. Similarly, autonomy versus shame and doubt may result in the infant wanting to participate in things themselves without the help of others. Thus, this may lead to frustration and resistance against help offered to them. Additionally, if the child’s home environment is not structured in ways that foster success, feelings of doubt and shame may result and efforts to achieve are dampened (Lightfoot, 2018).

Moreover, the positive aspects of social competencies such as the emergence of independence, results in increased exploration of the world and self-esteem as infants begin to accomplish tasks. The emergence of a sense of self promotes expansion of social networks. Sense of self allows the infant to assert themselves as having control over their own environments (Lightfoot, 2018). Additionally, self-awareness requires evaluation of oneself in relation to others. Furthermore, infants exhibiting autonomy develop a sense of their own abilities to accomplish tasks and increasingly seek challenges (Lightfoot, 2018). Ultimately, an infant’s biological, cognitive, and social developmental changes are significant because they directly reflect a child’s growth which influences the adult they will become. Although, two-year-olds can be challenging to handle at times, parents must understand that these developmental milestones are imperative to maximize the infant’s future welfare.