Brown Vs Board Of Education: The Segregation In Schools

Slavery in the United States was evident for many years. Leading up to 1957, more than 10 million African slaves were brought to the western hemisphere. In the southwest - Alabama and Mississippi, there was abundant land, suitable for cotton growing. Cotton was an extremely valuable crop which could be mass produced, however, cotton was an extremely labour intensive crop, and the clear option for the cheapest labour were slaves. Even with the mass supply of slaves, slaves were still in shortage due to the vast demand, causing slave prices to rise.

In 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted. The amendment abolished slavery, but many states found ways to indirectly prevent African American from voting. These include requiring a literacy test, or requiring them to own land, all of which African Americans are unable to have or do.

After that, the supreme court ruling “Plessy vs Ferguson” was a decision which allowed many state laws re-establishing racial segregation. In plain, it said that amenities could be separate but equal. This brought back racial segregation, even though both amenities should be equal, this was not the case. Often facilities for African American’s were inferior and underfunded. State schools for African Americans were constantly underfunded and given substandard materials.

Shortly before the Little Rock Crisis, The supreme court ruling “Brown vs Board of Education” was made. It was a decision that ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, even in the rare case that the schools are equal in quality. This partially overruled the “Plessy vs Ferguson” ruling. This ruling started with the Brown family (hence Brown vs Board”), a family of African Americans, filing a lawsuit against their local school district board after the school refused their black daughter, insisting she takes a bus to a black only school further away. This was a clear violation of their human rights, breaking multiple, but most clearly UDHR right number 2 - Don’t Discriminate.

Many other African American families joined the lawsuit, and so combined their lawsuits. At trial, the district court ruled in favour of the schools, basing it on the earlier “Plessy vs Ferguson” case. However, the Browns appealed this decision and the Supreme Court agreed to hear it. The Supreme Court went on to overrule the “Plessy vs Ferguson” case. This was the catalyst for enrolment of African American into white public schools.

After the “Brown vs Board of Education” ruling, on May 24th 1957, Virgil Blossom (Superintendent of Schools) proposed “The Blossom Plan”, the structure for gradual integration of African Americans into schools. Little Rock Central High School’s board unanimously voted for integrating African American’s into their previously white-only school in Arkansas. The plan would begin at the start of the school year in September 1957. From this plan, a group of students, now known as the Little Rock Nine, were enrolled to Little Rock Central High School to start that September. Before the start of the year, Many “Citizen’s Councils” (white supremacist, extreme right groups) threatened to protest and physically block African American students from entering the school. On September 4th, Orval Faubus (Arkansas Governor) deployed the national guard to assist the protestors.

Pictures of lines of soldiers blocking the children from entering made international news, shocking many countries. Protestors and soldiers alike were heard chanting, one of which being “2,4,6,8, we don't want to integrate”. Woodrow Wilson Mann (Little Rock Mayor) asked President Dwight D. Eisenhower to send federal units to protect the African American students. On September 24th President Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne Division to enforce the supreme court order. Eisenhower also federalised the ten thousand member National Guard of Arkansas, taking the guard out of Governor Orval Faubus’ control.

The Nine were motivated to keep going by the Black Civil Rights movement, which had just started. Not long ago had the Montgomery bus boycott occurred, and that current year Martin Luther King Jr. and many other black pastors and civil rights leaders met in Georgia to coordinate a non-violent protest. Some argued that the Little Rock Nine were strongly influenced by this. The intended purpose was to desegregate schools and allow African Americans to attend white schools. As well, to raise awareness about segregation around the world. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) enrolled the students, which is known as one of the first tests of integration. This test was watched by many countries around the world. African American’s human rights were being breached by being prevented from entering segregated schools. To counter this, they were enrolled in an all-white school. However, they again had their rights breached when protests prevented them from entering.

Orval Faubus was the Governor of Arkansas during the Little Rock Crisis. Faubus is considered to have a point of view against integration. He made international headlines during this time, when he used the national guard to prevent African Americans from attending Little Rock school. From the start, he insisted that his only reason was to prevent violence, but his actions caused him to be by far the most popular politician in Arkansas. Faubus was deemed a hero to segregationists and held the longest term as Governor of Arkansas. He held the role for 12 years, maintaining a defiant but popular image, but opting for fewer confrontations with the federal government during the administration of Kennedy.

Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of The United States of America, held a point of view strongly for integration. When Faubus did not carry out the supreme court order in Brown vs Board of Education, Woodrow Wilson Mann (Little Rock Mayor) sent a telegram to Eisenhower, requesting federal troops. Eisenhower knew he had to act boldly to prevent the situation from worsening, so federalized the National Guard, and sent 1000 paratroopers in.

Many criticised this action, some saying he had not done enough to uphold the rights for African Americans, and some saying he had overused his federal power. Martin Luther King wrote to Eisenhower, quoting “The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock”.

As well, a negative short term impact was the intense protests and riots, which blocked students entry into the school. These riots were not able to be controlled by local police, so President Eisenhower had to step in and send federal units to control the riots. Federal units were also used to escort students into school. The federal units and the 101st Airborne Division stayed to escort the students each day. Even with this escort, the students were still subject to a year of abuse. The African American students were attacked physically and verbally throughout the year. A few incidents from Central High stand out; a student who had acid thrown in their eyes, as well as when a student was locked into a bathroom stall and had flaming paper dropped on her head.

Another negative short-term consequence was when all public schools in Little Rock were closed. On September 12th, the Supreme Court of the United States made the landmark ruling Cooper vs Aaron. This ruling denied the school board a 30-month delay for segregation. Orval Faubus claimed that Little Rock had the right to freedom, and should be able to protest against the federal decision. Faubus went on to sign acts which would allow him to close all public schools in Little Rock. On September 15th, 1958, Faubus closed all four of the public schools, preventing any students from entering. Even with Faubus’ decree, the city held a referendum. He told the public that he was planning to lease school buildings to private schools, hence educating white and black students separately. Faubus ended up winning the referendum. With public schools closed, African American families could not afford to send their children to private schools, but white families could. White pupils were able to attend private schools during “The Lost Year”

In May 1959, 3 segregationist board members were fired, with 3 replacing them. The new Board of Directors went on to reinstate teaching and administrative staff, before attempting to open Public schools. When the schools opened (August 12, 1959) African Americans again had a hard time entering the school, coming under physical and verbal abuse. The lost year would be blamed on the African Americans, only increasing the hatred directed towards them.

A positive long-term consequence was the creation of The Little Rock Nine Foundation. The Foundation was created in February 1999. It focuses on offering equal opportunities for all children, especially coloured. They provide financial support to those who need it and are dedicated that racism will not dictate educational policies, like what had happened during their childhood. The Foundation encourages youth to take control of their education, and take opportunities whenever they can. Members from Little Rock Nine, through the Little Rock Nine Foundation, are dedicated to ensuring that all children, especially coloured children, gain the knowledge they require for adulthood.

“The champions who make up the Little Rock Nine® Foundation are committed to ensuring that future generations have access to quality education.” Describe the significance of the impact of the action for society in New Zealand and, if relevant, elsewhere. When all public schools in Little Rock were closed, all children, no matter what colour, were prevented from returning to school. By being prevented, this meant many children lost out on vital education. This is significant because these children did not fully grasp the situation, and happily greeted the year off school. They may grow up to support Faubus’ segregationist views, which would only prolong racism in America, therefore possibly relapsing what had happened in the Little Rock Nine incident. The closure was broadcast around the world and brought more awareness to the inequality for African Americans.

The Little Rock Nine Foundation continues to provide financial aid and mentoring to the current day. When African American children receive assistance to receive equal education as Americans, they are then provided with the opportunity to promote equality for education. With this opportunity, they may be able to help future African Americans in the next generation, and hopefully they would not need a foundation to help them, but instead, there would be zero segregation or difference between different coloured children. This could have a profound long term impact, improving the lives of many more to come. Without this improvement, society would stay on the same path of inequality.

Little Rock Nine was a major contributing factor to the Black Civil Rights movement. It was integral for fighting for equality in American education as well as desegregating America. This is significant because it lay a base for the Black Civil Rights movement to proceed with. Shortly after the Little Rock Crisis, 250,000 people join the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Martin Luther King gives his prestigious, historic speech “I Have a Dream” which goes down in the history books. The Black Civil Rights movement expands exponentially, with countless more events occurring.

This event links to other peaceful protests, such as Parihaka. In Parihaka, the government illegally confiscated land, and instead of armed action, the community decided to peacefully protest. Gandhi eventually caught wind of the peaceful protest and became a major advocate of what is now called Nonviolent Resistance or NVR. Martin Luther King also became an advocate for peaceful protests.

Clearly, there are many peaceful protests, and the African Americans involved in Little Rock Nine had heard of Gandhi’s actions and had decided to do the same. While submitted to bullying and abuse from white students, the African Americans continued to hold their own peaceful protest to desegregate schools and enter.

The enrolment of 9 African American students to an all-white school eventually worked. While it was a hard objective to reach, the students persevered well. By enrolling the nine, the school had started to be desegregated and was on the path of total desegregation. However, violence and protests rising from the enrolment of African Americans effectively slowed desegregation. Faubus also closed public schools, allowing white parents to send their children to white-only private schools, while African Americans were unable to send their children due to financial holdbacks.

Public schools reopened in 1959, but due to the lost year and protests, desegregation was still a long way away. In 1964, still, only about 3% of black children were enrolled in desegregated schools. It was not until 1972 that all schools in Little Rock were desegregated. Ernest Green proceeded on to be the first African American to graduate from Central High School and led the way for many more African Americans to be enrolled in white schools. In 1999, all nine in the group were presented the Congressional Gold Medal - The highest citizen awardable medal from Congress. This test of integration was watched around the world, and would hopefully influence desegregation in other places. The whole process had been aired globally, and so awareness of the situation was increased.

The Little Rock Nine were already entitled to desegregated education, from the ruling “Brown vs Board of Education”, which was what prompted their enrolment to Central High. They continued to attend school, which continues on to be recognised as a National Historic Site. The school still runs to this day, with a Civil Rights museum situated next to it. America’s education nowadays is mostly desegregated, but you could argue segregation still seeps into everything. Since African Americans still live in the same general neighbourhood, schools that zone that area often will have a higher amount of African Americans. Overall, while America isn’t pristine, the enrolment of The Little Rock Nine worked, as schools eventually were desegregated, so the intended purpose was met.