Religious Dualism in Anglo Saxon Literature

In 597 the introduction for Christianity in England began with the nomination of Saint Augustine as the Archbishop of Canterbury. Prior to Christianization, England was home to a diverse number of pagan religions resulting in social division and tribal warfare. Christianity offered a unifying message and had an immense impact on English culture and literature. This transformation from pagan beliefs to the tenets of Catholicism created a unique form of literature which on the surface appeared as stories of pagan heritage, but under this superficial layer were references to themes of the Bible. Goodson describes this process as, “remnants of pagan mysticism and magic blurred and interwove with themes from the Bible to create proselytizing legends” (1). This was done intentionally in an effort by the Catholic Church to convert and civilize the “barbaric” people of England. During the early stages of English literature, most books were copied by monks, employed by the Catholic Church, who would incorporate themes of Christianity into the stories. Originally these stories were intended to convey pagan or non-religious messages, but were altered during their translation and inscription to conform to the emerging Christian society. The religious dualism present in Anglo-Saxon literature reflects the confusion and division in English society, but the superiority of Christianity within the stories suggests, and history has confirmed, that Christianity ultimately wins out. The blending of pagan and Christian elements in Anglo-Saxon poetry can be seen in “Dream of the Rood”, Beowulf, and “The Wanderer.”

In “Dream of the Rood” there is clear evidence of intermingling of heathen and Christian elements. The story is from the perspective of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. The cross seems to have an emotional attachment to Christ and describes the imagery and magnitude of the moment. The poem begins with the narrator describing his vision of “a beauteous tree uplifted in the air, enwreathed with light, brightest of beams. All that beacon was enwrought with gold. Four jewels lay upon the earth, and five were at the crossing of the arms” (2). Some scholars have speculated that the five gems atop the cross would have symbolized, for pagans, the five elements (earth, fire, water, air, and the spirit). In connection with the Bible, Dr. Gannaway, a religious scholar studying numeric symbolism, theorizes that “the number five represents the result of the physical world acting on the individual. It symbolizes the body, the senses, the four rivers of Eden, and temptation” (52). Even though there is not a direct connection between each symbol, the presence of the five gems and gold standard would have attracted pagan and Christian followers.

Furthermore, trees are a common symbol in both Christianity and paganism. Germanic and Scandinavian pagan religions believed that forests and sacred groves served as sanctuaries for spirits and would be used as places of worship. Similarly, Christian temples and burial grounds would be placed near or around trees as a testament to their sacredness. Christians would have viewed the cross as a symbol for the Tree of Life, while pagans would have viewed it as motif for Yggdrasill, a mystical tree of Norse Mythology. Both are divine in nature, are the source of spiritual and natural truths, and play a role in the story of creation. In Norse mythology, “the mighty ash tree Yggdrasill connects all three planes of the cosmos and the nine worlds of the Norse universe. All life springs from its source.” (Tampierová 48). Comparing this with the Tree of Life which is the source of original sin and corrupts Adam and Eve, ultimately leading to the fall of man. This connection between both religions could have been a creative ploy used by the author to attract members of both faiths, and yet the outer appearance of the story itself reflects a strong Christian message.

When Christ steps onto the cross he is depicted as a warrior and hero of men similar to how Odin, the Norse god of magic, is described when he hanged himself from this mystical tree to gain the knowledge of life and death. According to scholars this form of self-sacrifice is a common element throughout the poem and in both Christian and pagan traditions. A possible interpretation, according to Tampierová may be that, “human existence on the horizontal level is bound with its vertical dimension of eternal life through sacrifice: the self-sacrifice of the tree and of the warrior, inherent to paganism and that of Christ the Man and Christ the God” (Tampierová 47). Transition sentence.

Beowulf, the most notable Anglo-Saxon poem, is rooted in Germanic heritage, but manages to blend heathen qualities with Christian symbolism. Since Beowulf was most likely recorded by a monk or member of the church it is littered with religious allegory. The mere presence of vile monsters and ghouls has a connection to pagan and Christian doctrine, while also symbolizing vices of humanity. Grendel is a symbol for man's sin and greed, created after the original sin committed by Adam and Eve. Grendel is described as, “a member of Cain's clan, whom the Creator had outlawed/ and condemned as outcasts. /The Almighty made him an anathema /and out of the course of his exile there sprang ogres, and elves, and evil phantoms” (lines 106-108). Yet another religious symbol appears during Beowulf's vengeful battle with Grendel's mother. Beowulf enters Grendel’s cave to face his mother, but his attempt to kill her initially fails because Hrunting, the sword given to Beowulf by the heathen Unferth, breaks. He finds an ancient sword, a relic of ancient times, which he uses to kill Grendel’s mother. Hrothgar claims that the sword was from when 'the flood destroyed the tribe of giants. /They suffered a terrible severance from the Lord; /the Almighty made the waters rise, /drowned them in the deluge for retribution' (lines 1690-1693). Hrothgar's description resembles that of the story of Noah and the great flood. Warriors, the audience to which this story appeals, would have perceived this as an illustration of the superiority of Christianity over mysticism and paganism. This trend of religious allegory continues with Beowulf, the tenacious warrior and protagonist of the epic.

Scholars believe that Beowulf would have been viewed as a symbol of Christ. He travels to distant lands conquering evil relying on the generosity of others, similar to how Christ lived during his life. Beowulf demonstrates valor and humility, and often credits his abilities to a higher power. Hrothgar initially appeals to “pagan shrines vowing offerings to idols” yet they fail to hear his plea for assistance (line 175). The lack of response by the pagan gods indicates that they no longer had the power and influence that they once had on English society. When Beowulf finally arrives offering his services, Hrothgar describes him as a “savior” sent by the Almighty to restore order to his kingdom by defeating Grendel. This is a clear literary illustration of the story of the Bible relating to God sending Jesus Christ to save mankind from sin. Throughout the epic, Beowulf comforts his followers and himself.

Beowulf often claims that a supernatural force (Wyrd) has decided his fate. During the pre-Christian era, pagans believed that Norns, mystical deities, wove the fate of warriors with the strings of destiny. In contrast, Christians believe that God acts through Divine Providence, which is also present in Beowulf’s dialogue. In just a single line, Beowulf contrasts pagan and Christian elements, “My warrior band dwindles, driven by Wyrd into Grendel’s grasp; but God may easily end this monster’s mad career” This line clearly draws a contrast between pagan and Christian theology, but ultimately it appears as though God has absolute authority in the natural world. Transition sentence.

“The Wanderer” is a poetic testament to the two diverging cultures present during the time in which it was written. According to Mitchell it was, “probably a Christian reworking of a heathen poem that originally treated the popular Anglo-Saxon motif of loneliness in exile (310). The condition of the narrator deteriorates throughout the poem, as he languishes in exile and traverses the rough terrain. The narrator explains why he lives in exile when he says, “a man who lacks advice for a long while from his beloved lord understands this, that when sorrow and sleep together hold the wretched wanderer in their grip” (#). During the Anglo-Saxon era, a warrior who lost his lord and mead hall would likely live in torment and suffering. The narrator accuses Wyrd as playing a role in his inevitable misery: “he has long been forced to stir with his hands the frost-cold sea, and walk in exile’s paths. Wyrd is fully fixed! The weary mind cannot withstand wyrd…” (#). The narrator curses his fate and wishes that he had met the same end as his fallen brethren. Heathen tribes deemed the death of warriors in battle as the most honorable and secure path to eternal happiness: “The savage ash-spears have claimed all the warriors – a glorious fate!” (#). Initially the narrator combats his loneliness with drawn out melancholic monologues, but soon he learns that the solution he so desperately needs lies with God. Daiches describes the prevailing element in the poem as, “the elegiac and obscure mood which is concluded with a theological message” (20). The narrator has a spiritual enlightenment beginning with him saying, “The wise man must realize how ghostly it will be when all the wealth of this world stands waste, as now here and there throughout this middle-earth” (#). He realizes that to be truly content in life, one must shun material wealth and instead embrace the wealth of charity. The narrator describes the type of character necessary to enter into the Kingdom of Heaven when he says, “Brave is the man who holds to his belief [faith]; nor shall he ever show the sorrow in his heart” (#). In order for sorrow and pain to leave the heart, the narrator believes that he must hold strong to his faith and reject the innate evils of the natural world. He finds comfort in the blessings given to man by the Lord; “It is best to seek mercy and comfort from the Father in heaven” (#).