Humanism and Science in the Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment, which took place during the 18th century, was marked by the introduction of new ideas and concepts to the people of Western Europe. Ideas like Humanism, Naturalism, and scientific reasoning were influential in the genesis of new schools of thought, and more importantly, in helping people question the established authority of the time. Three historical texts that are demonstrative of how these ideas influenced Enlightenment Era writers are On Miracles by David Hume, The Social Contract by Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Remember the Ladies by Abigail Adams. In his writing, David Hume applies the scientific method to religion, and in doing so proposes four proofs that disprove the legitimacy of religious miracles. In The Social Contract Jean Jacque Rousseau discusses the legitimacy of slavery, as well as the importance of self-governance and how the individual can work for the community. Lastly, in Remember the Ladies, Abigail Adams applies arguments for the rights of women in America, as well as outlining how Humanism was for everyone, not just white European men. All three of these sources share the common, but new, mentality of questioning all authority, whether that be through philosophy or science.

Before the Enlightenment period, the Catholic church was essentially the only authority in terms of education. Information was controlled by the church to fit their truths, and those who questioned their authority were punished with death or exile. In David Hume’s On Miracles, he describes the four proofs that he believes disproves miracles. Hume establishes these arguments on the basis that for a miracle to be miraculous, there must be an expected, non-miraculous outcome to the situation. His four proofs are as follows:

First, no miracle has ever been witnessed and attested to by “a sufficient number of men, of such unquestioned good sense, education, and learning…” (721).

Second, humans have a passion for surprise and wonder, and are more likely to believe miracles if they inspire such feelings.

Third, most of these miracles are observed in “barbarous” places where education is not as widespread as it is in Europe.

Lastly, most religions use miracles to prove the basis of their beliefs.

More so, when one religion seeks to disprove another, they often end up with evidence against themselves, as their own belief is based upon similar miracle stories. Ironically, these proofs would have doomed Hume if they were presented any time before the Scientific Revolution. The same barbarism that Hume describes in his proof is the same barbarism that Europeans used to live by. But now, instead of taking the word of the Church as truth, Hume is able to apply the scientific method to religion, and more importantly, Hume is able to recognize the bias inherently involved in religion. Through these arguments Hume makes a very strong statement: religion and reason are mutually exclusive. The fact that such an argument could be written is a testament to the power that the Enlightenment had taken away from the church.

Humanism was a large part of the Age of Enlightenment. The ideology of Humanism focuses on the Human rather than the supernatural or divine. A key point of Rousseau’s The Social Contract is inherently a humanist belief: all men are born free. In this context, Rousseau is saying that humans have no right to enslave other humans. He describes how force can allow for slavery for short periods of time, but he goes on to say that force does not create a right to ownership. He argues that “slavery is null and void, not only as being illegitimate but also because it is absurd and meaningless” (724-725). Thus, the fact that Rousseau's ideology, in opposition to what most people have known all of their lives, could circulate and have substantial enough an impact that people could question their long-held beliefs, is a testament to the power that the Age of Enlightenment gave to the laypeople.

Rousseau’s second point is about the social contract. This social contract would involve all people in a community to come together as a group, with all of the same rights and responsibilities so as to not harm their own self-interests and self-care, and to work as a united force to overcome the obstacles of life. This was written during a time of kings and kingdoms, so a government of the people was a dangerous notion. Rousseau’s ideas stuck with people though, as it was his works that influenced the French Revolution years after his death. Rousseau’s works were paramount to establishing the rights of individuals and the right of self-governance.

Self-governance and freedom were also the topics at hand in Abigail’s letters to her husband John Adams. John and Abigail's relationship was interesting in that it opposed what many other married couples embodied during the 18th century, as they considered each other intellectual equals when women were discouraged from participating in intellectual discourse. Abigail wrote to John while he was drafting the Declaration of Independence to remind him of how women would and should be affected by the declaration. Abigail claims that men would be tyrants if they could, and that this truth is so established that men would not give up their title of “master” for the title of “friend.” John’s response only serves to support Abigail’s claims. He responds with “…We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems. Altho they are in full Force, you know they are little more than Theory. We dare not exert our Power in its full latitude” (732). Abigail’s letters (and John’s responses) are a testament to why Humanism is needed. Even though Abigail could be considered an “elite”, she is still treated poorly for being a woman. Abigail believes so strongly in this that she even threatens rebellion against the laws that offer her no voice or representation. The Enlightenment extended and applied to everyone, not just the white men of Europe. These sources all embody what the Enlightenment was about: using philosophy and science to question the established authority in order to improve the world.